NEW-WORLD  SCENCE  SERIES 

PRIMER  OF 
HYGIENE 


RITCH I  E;CALDWELL 


WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 


Life* 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

G 


Class 


NEW- WORLD  SCIENCE  SERIES 

PRIMER 
OF  HYGIENE 

BY 

JOHN   W.  RITCHIE 

PROFESSOR    OF    BIOLOGY,    COLLEGE    OF    WILLIAM 
AND    MARY,    VIRGINIA 


AND 


JOSEPH  S.  CALDWELL 

PROFESSOR  OF  BIOLOGY,  GEORGE  PEABODY  COLLEGE 
FOR  TEACHERS,  TENNESSEE 


Illustrated  by 

KARL  HASSMANN 

and 
HERMANN  HEYER 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,  NEW  YORK 

WORLD    BOOK    COMPANY 

IQIO 


NEW-WORLD  SCIENCE  SERIB 

"  Our  national  health  is  physically  our  greatest 
asset.     To  prevent  any  possible  deterioration  of 
the  American  stock  should  be  a  national  am-    ^  } 
bition." — Theodore  Roosevelt. 

The  conservation  of  individual  and  national 
health  is  the  purpose  of  the  Ritchie-Caldwell 
series. 

Primer  of  Hygiene 

By  John  W.  Ritchie  of  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  in  Vi  * 
ginia  and  J.    S.    Caldwell  of   Peabody    College    for    Teachers 
Tennessee.     Illustrated.     Cloth.     List  price  for  class  use  40  cent 
mailing  price  for  single  copies  48  cents. 

The  purpose  of  this  first  book  is  to  teach  the  lower  grade  pup 
what  he  himself  can  do  to  keep  his  body  in  health  —  person, 
hygiene. 

Primer  of  Sanitation 

By  John  W.  Ritchie.  Illustrated.  Cloth.  List  price  50  cents 
mailing  price  60  cents. 

The  second  book  in  the  series  and  the  first  in  the  English  languag< 
to  teach  grammar  grade  pupils  how  to  escape  germ  diseases  an 
how  to  cooperate  in  conserving  community  health  —  public  hygiene 

Human  Physiology 

By  John  W.  Ritchie.  Illustrated  in  black  and  in  colors.  Cloth 
List  price  80  cents;  mailing  price  96  cents. 

A  third  book  which  presents  to  upper  grammar  grade  pupils  thn- 
essentials  of  physiology,  hygiene,  and  sanitation  that  every  Ameri 
can  citizen  ought  to  know.  The  style  is  so  simple  and  the  illustra 
tions  so  clear  that  the  subject  assumes  unusual  interest. 

A  fable  entitled  The  Adventures  of  the  Starch 
Family,  an  aid  to  the  understanding  of  the 
process  of  digestion,  will  be  sent  free  to  users  of 
Human  Physiology. 

WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

Caspar  W.   Hodgson,  Manager 
Yonkers-on-Hudson,  New  York 


Copyright,  iqio,  by  World  Book  Company.   Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  Lown. 
All  rights  reserved. 


PREFACE 

IN  cmparatively  recent  years  there  has  come  into 
the  wld  a  new  knowledge  that  is  able  to  save  man 
f roira  great  part  of  the  sickness  that  has  heretofore 
affliced  him.  Up  to  the  present  time,  however, 
no  ^ay  of  getting  this  knowledge  to  the  mass  of 
the  people  has  been  found,  and  according  to  the 
estiiate  of  Professor  Irving  Fisher,  we  have  in  the 
Unbd  States  at  all  times  about  three  millions  of 
persns  who  are  seriously  ill. 

Tie  writers  of  this  little  book  have  felt  that  the 
grecest  immediate  service  our  schools  can  perform 
is  t  put  their  pupils  into  possession  of  those  facts 
tha  will  relieve  the  people  of  the  great  burden  of 
preentable  disease  which  they  are  now  carrying. 
Thy  believe  that  hygiene  should  be  faithfully  taught 
in  very  schoolroom  in  the  land,  that  the  purpose 
in  eaching  it  is  to  prevent  sickness,  and  that  any 
tex  on  hygiene  that  fails  to  emphasize  the  facts 
the  modern  medicine  has  shown  to  be  vital  in 
heith  preservation  is  an  inferior  book  for  school 
ust 

or  the  valuable  suggestions  made  by  those  who 
hae  read  and  criticised  the  proofs  of  this  book, 
acknowledgment  is  here  made.  It  is  impossible  to 
naie  all  who  have  aided  in  this  way,  but  amdng 
thse  whose  help  has  been  especially  valuable  are 
th  following:  Leonard  P.  Ayres,  Dr.  L.  B.  Bibb, 
D.  H.  M.  Bracken,  Dr.  William  H.  Burnham,  Dr. 
CWard  Crampton,  Dr.  H.  B.  Crumbine,  Dr.  Martin 

iii 

206458 


iv  PREFACE 

H.  Fischer,  Dr.  Christian  A.  Herter,  Dr.  Samuel  A. 
Hopkins,  Dr.  J.  N.  Hurty,  Dr.  F.  V.  Jackson,  Dr. 
James  M.  King,  Dr.  George  D.  Leslie,  Dr.  R.  Tait 
McKenzie,  Dr.  H.  W.  Morgan,  Dr.  S.  W.  New- 
mayer,  Dr.  Stewart  R.  Roberts,  Dr.  G.  F.  Rhein- 
hardt,  Dr.  William  F.  Snow,  Dr.  A.  R.  Ward,  Dr. 
C.  E.  A.  Winslow. 

The  Oral  Hygiene  Committee  of  the  National 
Dental  Association,  through  Dr.  W.  G.  Ebersole, 
Dr.  W.  A.  White,  and  especially  Dr.  Paul  G.  White, 
chairman  of  the  text  book  committee,  has  given  help 
for  which  grateful  acknowledgment  is  made 

To  Miss  Florence  Gray,  Yonkers,  New  York; 
Miss  Mary  Pierce  and  Miss  Frances  Dunn,  Farm- 
ville,  Virginia;  Miss  Virginia  Jones,  Williamsburg, 
Virginia;  and  Miss  Jessie  B.  Montgomery,  Terre 
Haute,  Indiana,  who  gave  the  book  the  invaluable 
test  of  actual  use  in  the  schoolroom,  the  authors  are 
greatly  indebted. 

Other  practical  and  experienced  teachers  who  read 
the  proof  and  gave  helpful  suggestions  were  Miss 
Josephine  K.  Bauer,  Indianapolis,  Indiana;  Frank 
Evans,  Spartanburg,  South  Carolina;  Miss  Minnie 
Fisher,  Montgomery,  Alabama;  Miss  Mary  P.  Jones, 
Nashville,  Tennessee;  Mrs.  John  L.  Price,  Florence, 
Alabama;  and  Miss  Flora  Wilber,  Fort  Wayne, 
Indiana. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

I.  THE   IMPORTANCE  OF  KEEPING  THE  BODY  IN 

HEALTH 

II.  THE  HUMAN  BODY  AND  THE  GREAT  LAWS  OF 
HEALTH  ....... 

III.  FOODS  AND  THEIR  USES  IN  THE  BODY  . 

IV.  BUYING  FOODS     .         . 

V.  COOKING  FOODS  ... 

VI.  CARING  FOR  FOODS      ... 

VII.  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  WORK    . 

VIII.  KEEPING  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  IN  HEALTH 

IX.  THE  CARE  OF  THE  TEETH  .... 

X.  THE  Am  WE  BREATHE         .... 

XL  THE  LUNGS  AND  AIR  PASSAGES  AND  THEIR  CARE 

XII.  ADENOIDS  AND  ENLARGED  TONSILS 

XIII.  THE  BLOOD  AND  THE  HEART 

XIV.  THE  KIDNEYS 

XV.     THE  SKIN 

XVI.     CLOTHING 

XVII.  THE  CARRIAGE  OF  THE  BODY 

XVIII.     EXERCISE 

XIX.  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM          . 

XX.  THE  CARE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM    . 

XXI.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  HABIT 

XXII.  THE  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  BODY 

XXIII.  THE  EFFECTS  OF  TOBACCO  ON  THE  BODY 

XXIV.  THE  EYES  AND  THEIR  CARE 

XXV.  THE  EAR  AND  ITS  CARE       .... 

XXVI.  ACCIDENTS  ....... 

XXVII.  SOME  SIMPLE  EXERCISES  FOR  USE  IN  SCHOOLS 

XXVIII.     DISEASE  GERMS 

XXIX.     TYPHOID  FEVER 

V 


5 

9 

15 

19 

22 
26 

32 
38 
46 

52 
59 
63 
69 

7i 
77 
81 
86 
90 

94 

98 

103 

no 

"3 

121 

127 

J31 
141 
144 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXX.     TUBERCULOSIS  (CONSUMPTION)        .         .        .150 
XXXI.     OTHER  DISEASES  OF  THE  AIR  PASSAGES  AND 

LUNGS '-.157 

XXXII.     MALARIA,  SMALLPOX,  AND  OTHER  GERM  DIS- 
EASES    .         .         .."...       .163 

XXXIII.  PREVENTING  THE  SPREAD  OF  DISEASE  GERMS      168 

XXXIV.  KEEPING  UP  THE  RESISTANCE  OF  THE  BODY 

TO  DISEASE  GERMS          .         .         .         .176 
To  THE  TEACHER  .     it  +..       *—     .       \.     180 

INDEX  181 


VI 


•';"'"•  ~-  " 

*       Of   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

^DIMER  OF  HYGIENE 


CHAPTER  ONE 

THE  IMPORTANCE   OF  KEEPING  THE  BODY  IN  HEALTH 


FIG.  i.     When  we  have  health  we  find  the  world  a  beautiful 
place  in  which  to  live. 

ALL  of  us  know  that  this  is  a  beautiful  and  a  pleas- 
ant world.  We  enjoy  the  songs  of  the  birds  and 
the  beauty  of  the  flowers.  It  gives  us  pleasure  to 
feel  the  soft  winds  of  spring  and  to  watch  the  green 
come  back  on  the  trees.  We  love  to  watch  the 
clouds  sail  through  the  sky  and  the  snowflakes  fall 
through  the  air.  Everywhere  we  turn  we  find 
many  things  that  give  us  happiness  and  content- 
ment, and  make  the  world  a  beautiful  place  for  us 
to  live  in. 

Why  is  it  that  we  cannot  spend  all  our  time  en- 
joying the  pleasant  and  beautiful  things  of  life? 


2  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

Why  must  we  take  life  so  seriously?  Why  must 
older  people  work,  and  why  must  children  study  and 
prepare  themselves  for  work?  We  will  tell  you  the 
great  reason  why  every  one  who  wishes  to  enjoy  the 
pleasant  things  of  life  cannot  give  all  his  time  and 
thought  to  these  same  beautiful  and  pleasant  things. 
//  is  because  we  must  have  health  to  enjoy  the  world, 
and  we  must  work  to  care  for  our  bodies  and  to  keep 
them  in  health. 

The  health  of  the  body  important.  Nature 
has  given  to  each  of  us  a  body,  and  in  these  bodies 
we  must  live  as  long  as  we  are  in  the  world.  When 
our  bodies  are  well  and  strong,  we  rejoice  in  them, 
and  we  see  and  feel  the  beauty  of  the  world.  But 
when  sickness  and  pain  come  upon  us,  we  can  get 
little  pleasure  from  all  the  things  that  have  been 
provided  for  our  enjoyment.  This  is  why  we  must 
care  for  our  bodies  if  we  would  enjoy  the  pleasures 
of  life  and  do  the  work  that  is  waiting  in  the  world 
for  each  one  of  us. 

Work  required  to  keep  our  bodies  in  health. 
To  care  for  the  body  is  not  easy,  for  it  must  have 
food,  it  must  be  protected  from  cold,  and  it  must 
have  many  other  wants  supplied.  Indeed,  so  difficult 
is  it  to  supply  all  the  needs  of  our  bodies  that  the  hu- 
man race  spends  most  of  its  tune  working  to  secure 
those  things  that  are  necessary  for  life  and  comfort. 
Yet  our  bodies  must  be  cared  for;  otherwise  we  can 
neither  get  out  of  the  world  the  happiness  that  it 


KEEPING   THE  BODY  IN  HEALTH  3 

ought  to  hold  for  us,  nor  give  to  others  the  pleas- 
ure that  GUI;  lives  ought  to  bring  to  them. 

Hygiene  important  because  it  teaches  how 
to  care  for  the  body.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this 
book  to  teach  you  how  to  care  for  your  body 
and  keep  it  in  health.  The  study  of  this  subject 
is  called  hygiene.  It  is  a  most  important  sub- 
ject to  you  —  so  important  that  if  you  cannot 
afford  to  take  time  to  study  it  and  understand 
it,  there  are  few  things  that  you  can  afford  to 
take  time  to  do. 

Questions  :  i.  Why  cannot  we  give  all  our  time  to  enjoy- 
ing the  pleasant  things  of  the  world?  2.  Explain  why  it 
is  so  important  for  us  to  care  for  our  bodies.  3.  What  is 
hygiene?  4.  Why  is  the  study  of  hygiene  important? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Let  the  teacher  and 
pupils  keep  an  account  of  the  number  of  days  that  are  lost  by 
the  school  or  grade  during  the  year  on  account  of  sickness. 

When  any  one  is  ill,  record  the  cause  of  the  sickness  and  deter- 
mine if  possible  whether  or  not  it  could  have  been  prevented.  At 
the  end  of  the  year  count  up  how  many  days  of  sickness  could 
have  been  prevented  by  reasonable  care. 

The  teacher  should  secure  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Committee 
of  One  Hundred  on  National  Health,  New  Haven,  Connecticut, 
Professor  Irving  Fisher's  "  Report  on  National  Vitality,  Its  Wastes 
and  Conservation."  This  pamphlet  contains  a  wealth  of  infor- 
mation in  regard  to  the  whole  subject  of  health  and  disease  pre- 
vention. It  is  important  that  both  teacher  and  pupil  understand 
that  in  a  young  person  health  is  the  natural  condition;  that  sick- 
ness in  such  a  person  is  unnatural ;  and  that  the  cause  of  sickness 
in  a  young  person  should  at  once  be  looked  for. 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


skull 


•burner  us 


FIG.  2.     The  skeleton. 


CHAPTER  TWO 

THE  HUMAN  BODY  AND  THE  GREAT  LAWS  OF  HEALTH 

A  GREAT  engine  is  made  of  many  different  parts  all 
put  together  to  make  one  machine.  So  is  the  human 
body  made  of  many  different  parts  all  joined  to- 
gether to  make  one  whole.  The  engineer  must 
know  when  his  engine  needs  coal  and  water  and 
how  to  supply  them.  So  we  must  understand  the 
needs  of  our  bodies  and  how  to  satisfy  these 
needs.  The  engineer  ^  must  know  how  to  keep 
sand  and  dirt  out  of  the  working  parts  of  the 
engine  and  how  to  oil  these  parts  so  that  they 
will  not  wear  each  other  away.  So  we  must  know 
how  to  keep  out  of  our  bodies  the  germs  that  cause 
disease  and  how  to  give  our  bodies  the  exercise  and 
rest  that  are  necessary  for  their  health.  In  this 
chapter  we  shall  study  the  parts  of  the  body,  the 
needs  of  the  body,  and  the  great  laws  we  must 
observe  to  keep  our  bodies  in  health. 

The  parts  of  the  human  body.  The  human 
body  is  composed  of  a  head,  a  trunk,  and  two  pairs 
of  limbs.  It  is  supported  by  a  strong  framework  of 
bones  on  which  the  whole  body  is  built.  The  muscles 
to  move  this  framework  of  bones  are  stretched  over 
it  in  strong  bands,  and  the  skin  forms  a  tough 
covering  over  the  whole  body. 

The  organs  of  the  body.  The  bones  and 
muscles  form  a  thick  wall  about  a  large  cavity  in 
the  trunk  of  the  body.  In  this  cavity  are  found 

5 


PRIMER   OF  HVGIENE 


many  of  the  organs  that  do  the  work  of  the  body. 
In  the  upper  part  of  the  cavity  we  find  the  heart 
and  lungs.  In  its  lower  part  are  the  stomach,  the 


intestine 


FIG.  3.  The  principal  organs  of  the  body.  The  left  lung  has  been 
removed  and  the  edge  of  the  right  lung  turned  back  to  show  the 
heart  and  blood  vessels  more  clearly. 

intestines,  the  liver,  the  kidneys,  and  some  other 
organs.  In  Figure  3  the  organs  are  shown  as  they 
lie  in  place  in  the  cavity  of  the  trunk. 


THE  HUMAN  BODY  7 

The  uses  of  the  organs.  Each  part  of  the  body 
has  a  work  to  do.  The  bones  give  shape  and  strength 
to  every  part.  Without  them  we  should  be  as  limp 
and  shapeless  as  bags  of  sand.  The  muscles  move 
all  the  body  parts,  and  without  the  muscles  we 
should  be  as  motionless  as  trees  or  stones.  The 
stomach  and  intestines  take  in  food  and  prepare  it 
for  use;  the  heart  keeps  the  blood  moving  through 
the  body;  and  the  lungs  take  in  oxygen  from 
the  air.  The  hand  has  a  work  that  the  foot  can- 
not do,  and  the  eye  has  a  work  that  the  tongue 
cannot  do.  In  the  same  way  each  part  of  the  body 
has  a  work  of  its  own  that  can  be  done  by  no  other 
part. 

The  great  laws  of  health.  For  an  engineer  to 
understand  the  importance  of  taking  care  of  his  en- 
gine is  not  enough;  he  must  also  know  how  to  do  it. 
So,  if  we  hope  to  have  strong,  healthy  bodies,  we 
must  not  only  understand  the  importance  of  keep- 
ing the  laws  of  health,  but  we  must  know  what 
these  laws  are  and  how  we  can  keep  them. 

One  of  the  great  laws  of  health  is  that  the  body 
must  have  a  proper  supply  of  food.  Another  is  that 
it  must  have  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  A  third  is 
that  the  body  must  get  rid  of  its  poisonous  wastes; 
a  fourth  law  is  that  it  must  be  sheltered  from  the 
weather  so  that  it  will  not  be  too  hot  or  too  cold; 
and  a  fifth,  that  it  must  have  exercise,  rest,  and 
sleep.  Still  another  law,  and  a  very  important  one, 


8  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

is  that  disease  germs  must  not  be  allowed  to  get  into 
the  body  and  poison  it. 

Every  one  of  these  laws  must  be  followed  if  we 
are  to  keep  our  health  and  our  strength;  for  so 
surely  as  an  apple  falls  to  the  earth  when  its  stem  is 
separated  from  the  tree,  so  surely  is  your  body  in- 
jured when  the  great  laws  of  its  life  are  broken.  In 
later  chapters  of  this  book  we  shall  discuss  each  of 
these  laws  and  point  out  how  each  may  best  be 
followed. 

Questions:  i.  Name  the  principal  divisions  of  the  body. 
2.  What  forms  the  framework  of  the  body?  3.  What  is 
stretched  over  the  framework  of  the  body  to  move  it? 
4.  With  what  is  the  body  covered?  5.  What  organs  are  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  body?  6.  In  the  lower 
part?  7.  What  is  the  work  of  the  bones?  8.  Of  the  muscles? 
9.  Of  the  stomach  and  intestines?  10.  Of  the  heart?  n.  Of 
the  lungs?  12.  Name  some  other  organs  of  the  body  and  tell 
what  they  do.  13.  Give  some  of  the  great  laws  of  health. 
14.  What  will  happen  to  us  if  we  break  these  laws? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Develop  the  idea  of 
the  interdependence  of  the  body  parts.  Use  the  fable  of  the  hands 
that  grew  tired  of  seeking  food  for  the  lazy  stomach,  but  found  that 
when  the  stomach  was  not  supplied  with  food,  the  hands  and  all 
the  other  parts  of  the  body  became  weak  and  helpless. 


CHAPTER  THREE 

FOODS  AND  THEIR  USES  IN  THE  BODY 


FIGS.  4,  5,  and  6.    Foods  furnish  the  body  with  building  material, 
heat,  and  strength. 

WHEN  a  person  goes  without  food  for  more  than  a 
few  hours,  he  feels  hungry.  This  means  that  his 
body  needs  food  and  is  calling  for  it.  If  the  person 
cannot  get  food,  he  will  soon  become  weak  and  his 
body  will  waste  away.  Without  food  we  cannot 
keep  our  health  and  strength.  Without  food  we 
cannot  even  live. 

Do  you  ever  wonder  why  it  is  that  you  want  to 
eat?  Why  one  food  is  sometimes  better  for  us  than 
another  food?  Why  a  proper  amount  of  food  will 
give  strength  to  the  body  and  too  much  food  will 
make  the  body  ill?  Why  physicians  are  continually 
telling  us  to  be  careful  about  what  we  eat  and  in- 
sisting that  a  great  part  of  our  sickness  comes  from 
improper  food?  These  questions  are  most  impor- 
tant to  us,  and  we  shall  therefore  study  foods  and 
the  uses  that  the  body  makes  of  them. 

Foods  necessary  for  building  materials.  Scrape 
the  skin  of  your  arm  with  a  knife.  Do  you  not  find 

9 


10  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

dead,  dry  scales  on  the  knife?  This  dead  material 
is  all  the  time  falling  away  from  the  skin,  as  parti- 
cles of  bark  drop  from  the  outside  of  a  tree.  The 
inner  parts  of  your  body  also  are  wasting  away.  Yet 
your  body  does  not  become  lighter  and  thinner.  On 
the  contrary,  with  young  persons  the  body  grows 
larger  and  becomes  heavier  year  by  year.  This  is 
because  every  particle  of  substance  that  wastes 
away  in  heart  or  muscle  or  brain  or  skin  is  re- 
placed by  new  materials,  and  at  the  same  time  new 
substance  is  built  up  for  making  the  body  larger. 
This  new  material  is  formed  from  the  food  that  we 
eat.  One  great  use  of  food  is  to  furnish  building  mate- 
rial to  the  body. 

The  building  foods.  Among  the  more  impor- 
tant building  foods  are  lean  meats,  milk,  and  eggs. 
Bread  and  grains  also  contain  large  amounts  of 
building  materials,  as  do  peas,  beans,  oats,  and  corn. 
These  foods  give  the  body  warmth  and  strength, 
but  their  main  use  is  to  furnish  material  for  growth 
and  repair.  They  can  do  this  because  they  are 
composed  of  materials  like  those  which  make  up 
our  bodies.  Only  such  materials  can  build  up  our 
bodies.  It  would  be  just  as  sensible  to  try  to 
mend  a  broken  window  with  bricks  or  to  repair 
a  wornout  engine  with  lumps  of  coal  as  to  try 
to  repair  the  body  with  materials  different  from 
those  of  which  it  is  made.  Every  day  we  must 
eat  some  building  food,  for  night  and  day,  whether 


FOODS  AND   THEIR   USES  IN  THE  BODY      II 

we  are  asleep  or  awake,  our  bodies  are  wearing 
away. 

Foods  necessary  to  give  heat  to  the   body. 

The  body  is  warmer  than  most  of  the  objects  around 
it.  It  is  kept  warm  by  the  food  that  we  eat  just  as 
a  stove  is  kept  warm  by  the  wood  or  coal  that  is 
burned  in  it.*  A  second  use  of  food  is  to  furnish  heat 
for  warming  the  body. 

Foods  necessary  to  give  strength  to  the  body. 
You  have  seen  a  great  engine  driving  hundreds  of 
machines,  or  you  have  watched  a  locomotive  as  it 
flew  across  the  country  pulling  a  train  behind  it. 
An  engine  gets  its  power  to  work  from  the  coal  that 
is  burned  in  it.  In  the  same  way,  when  you  lift 
something  or  when  you  run,  your  body  gets  its 
strength  and  its  power  from  the  food  that  it  uses. 
A  third  use  of  food  is  to  give  the  body  strength  and 
power  to  work. 

The  heating  and  strengthening  foods.  The 
second  class  of  foods  is  the  heating  and  strengthen- 
ing foods.  These  are  the  foods  that  contain  the 
starches  and  sugars,  the  fats  and  the  oils.  We  take 
sugar  into  the  body  mainly  in  fruits  and  in  the  foods 
to  which  we  add  it  to  improve  the  taste.  Molasses, 
honey,  syrups,  and  other  sweet  foods  also  contain 
large  amounts  of  sugar. 

Starch  forms  more  than  three  fifths  of  our  food. 
We  eat  it  mainly  in  potatoes  and  in  the  foods  made 
from  grains  —  wheat  bread,  corn  bread,  macaroni, 


12 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


rice,   and  breakfast  foods.     Some  starch  is  found 
also  in  such  vegetables  as  turnips  and  cabbages. 

The  fats  we  get  chiefly  in  meats  and  in  butter 
and  milk.  We  also  get  fat  in  food  cooked  with  lard 
or  cotton-seed  oil  and  a  little  fat  in  fruits  and 


FIG.  7.  We  should  eat  plain,  substantial  foods  that  will  supply 
the  body's  needs  and  keep  it  in  health.  We  should  learn  in  youth 
to  eat  these  foods,  for  to  a  great  extent  we  carry  through  life  the 
habits  of  eating  that  we  form  when  we  are  young. 

vegetables.  From  a  pound  of  fat  or  oil  the  body 
gets  twice  as  much  heat  and  strength  as  it  gets 
from  a  pound  of  any  other  kind  of  food. 

Selecting  foods  that  will  supply  all  the  body 
needs.  We  should  eat  some  building  foods  and  some 
heating  and  strengthening  foods,  so  that  all  the 
needs  of  the  body  may  be  supplied.  Some  persons 
eat  so  much  meat  that  their  bodies  have  more  build- 
ing material  than  they  can  use,  while  at  the  same 
time  they  have  very  little  starch  and  sugar.  Some 


FOODS  AND   THEIR   USES  IN  THE  BODY     13 

persons  dislike  fat  meats  and  butter  and  take  only  a 
little  fat  in  thteir  food.  It  is  believed  that  these  per- 
sons are  more  liable  to  certain  diseases,  especially 
to  consumption,  than  are  persons  who  eat  a  reason- 
able amount  of  fat.  A  few  persons  seem  able  to  live 
and  keep  in  health  on  nuts  and  fruits,  but  these 
foods  do  not  contain  enough  building  material  for 
most  persons.  Eating  too  much  meat,  not  eating 
enough  fat,  and  not  eating  enough  building  mate- 
rial are  the  three  most  common  mistakes  in 'selecting 
foods. 

Learning  to  eat  many  different  kinds  of  foods. 
Nearly  all  of  us  like  the  things  that  we  eat  as  chil- 
dren, and  to  a  large  extent  we  keep  through  life  the 
habits  of  eating  formed  when  we  are  young.  You 
should  therefore  eat  many  different  kinds  of  foods 
and  learn  to  like  them,  and  guard  against  falling  into 
the  habit  of  eating  only  a  few  things  and  refusing 
to  taste  anything  else. 

Questions:  i.  Name  the  first  use  of  foods  to  the  body. 
2.  Why  must  the  body  have  building  materials?  3.  Name 
the  more  important  building  foods.  4.  Give  two  other  uses 
of  foods  in  the  body.  5.  What  materials  do  these  foods 
contain?  6.  Name  some  foods  that  contain  starch.  7. 
Name  some  foods  that  contain  sugar.  8.  Name  the  foods 
from  which  we  obtain  fat.  9.  For  what  is  fat  especially 
valuable  in  the  body?  10.  Name  some  common  mistakes 
that  people  make  in  selecting  their  food. 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Whether  an  animal 
that  stays  outdoors  in  the  winter  or  one  that  is  kept  in  a  warm  stable 


14  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

needs  more  food,  and  why.  The  kind  of  food  eaten  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  cold  countries,  and  why.  The  kind  of  foods  needed  in  es- 
pecially large  amounts  by  growing  animals  and  children.  Where  a 
chick  in  an  egg  gets  the  lime  for  building  its  skeleton.  The  minerals 
needed  by  the  body  and  where  they  are  obtained.  How  food  is 
stored  in  the  body.  Why  a  person  is  thin  after  sickness.  What  a 
frog  or  a  bear  lives  on  while  it  is  sleeping  through  the  winter.  Why 
a  person  who  is  doing  hard  work  needs  large  amounts  of  food. 

The  teacher  should  learn  as  much  as  possible  about  the  eating 
habits  of  the  pupils,  and  if  any  of  them  are  given  to  eating  large 
quantities  of  sweets  or  lean  meats,  or  are  falling  into  other  errors  of 
diet,  they  should  have  clearly  presented  to  them  the  fact  that  the 
body  demands  a  balanced  ration  and  that  it  will  not  receive  such  a 
ration  from  a  diet  of  this  sort. 

The  teacher  who  understands  chemistry  will  find  profit  in  reading 
Chittenden's  The  Nutrition  of  Man,  published  by  Frederick  A. 
Stokes  Company,  New  York. 


CHAPTER  FOUR 

BUYING  FOODS 


Corn  meal 
Oat  meal 
Dried  beans 
Peanuts 
White  bread 
Beef  round 
Milk 
Chicken 
Wbite  potatoes 
Rice 
Salt  fork 
Cabbage 
Prunes 
Bananas 
Butter 

^m~— 

—  w« 

FIG.  8.     The  length  of  the  line  shows  the  comparative  amount  of 
building  material  in  ten  cents'  worth  of  each  of  these  foods. 


DURING  a  strike  in  Chicago  a  poor  woman  spent 
her  last  ten  cents  for  lettuce  to  feed  her  hungry 
family.  If  she  had  bought  dried  beans,  she  would 
have  had  seventy-one  times  as  much  food  for  the 
same  money;  or  by  spending  five  cents  for  bread 
and  five  cents  for  milk  she  could  have  taken  home 
to  her  children  forty-one  times  as  much  nourish- 
ment. She  did  not  understand  that  the  body  must 
have  a  certain  amount  of  building  material  and  a 
certain  amount  of  food  for  heat  and  strength,  and 
that  the  various  food  materials  are  not  equally 
valuable  for  these  purposes.  She  had  not  learned 
that  in  mutton  a  pound  of  building  material  costs 
$1.50,  while  in  corn  meal  it  can  be  bought  for  27 

15 


1 6  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

cents;  that  the  amount  of  heating  and  strengthen- 
ing material  that  can  be  bought  in  sugar  for  6  cents 
costs  54  cents  in  cabbage;  that  the  amount  of  fat 
that  can  be  bought  in  fat  salt  pork  for  10  cents  costs 
in  butter  61  cents;  that  one  pound  of  oatmeal  will 
give  as  much  heat  and  strength  as  seventeen  pounds 
of  tomatoes  or  nearly  seven  pounds  of  bananas. 

How  to  select  foods.  It  is  often  a  mistake  to  buy 
beefsteak  at  twenty-five  cents  a  pound  when  for 
half  the  money  cheaper  cuts  of  meat  can  be  bought 
that  will  give  as  much  nourishment  or  even  more. 
A  man  who  does  hard  work  must  have  a  great  deal 
of  the  food  that  gives  strength.  It  is  not  necessary 
for  him  to  get  his  strength  from  expensive  foods  like 
meat  and  eggs  when  he  can  get  the  same  strength 
at  much  less  cost  from  bread  and  potatoes.  With 
only  a  small  amount  of  money  a  housekeeper  can 
provide  good  food  for  her  family  by  finding  out  what 
cheap  foods  will  supply  the  necessary  building  ma- 
terial and  strength,  and  then  learning  how  to  cook 
these  foods  so  that  they  will  be  pleasant  to  the  taste 
and  will  agree  with  the  digestion. 

The  tables  on  pages  15  and  17  show  the  amount 
of  building  material  and  of  heat-giving  and  strength- 
giving  material  in  some  common  foods,  and  the  cost 
of  these  materials  in  the  different  foods. 

Questions:  i.  What  mistake  do  people  often  make  in 
buying  their  food?  2.  From  the  table  on  page  15  name 
some  foods  that  contain  large  amounts  of  building  material. 


BUYING  FOODS 


Oat  meal 


Sugar 


Dried  beans 


White  bread 


Rice 


White  potatoes 


Peanuts 

I 

Butter 


Beef  round 

•P 

Chicken 

OJ 

Cabbage 

D 

Bananas 


Building  material          Heating  and  strengthening  material 
FIG.  9.     Showing  the  value  of  ten  cents'  worth  of  certain  foods  for 
supplying  building  material,  heat  and  strength. 


1 8  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

3.  Name  some  foods  that  are  valuable  for  giving  heat  and 
strength  to  the  body.  4.  Name  some  foods  that  are  valu- 
able for  building  material  as  well  as  for  heat  and  strength. 
5.  What  do  potatoes  supply  to  the  body?  6.  What  food 
could  a  person  eat  with  potatoes  to  give  his  body  building 
material,  heat,  and  strength?  7.  If  a  person  lives  on  fruits 
and  vegetables,  what  does  his  body  lack?  8.  From  the 
tables  on  pages  15  and  17  select  a  number  of  foods  which 
furnish  building  materials  at  a  low  price.  9.  Select  some 
foods  that  will  furnish  heat  and  strength  to  the  body  at  a 
low  price.  10.  Select  foods  that  will  furnish  both  building 
materials  and  heat  and  strength  at  a  low  price,  n.  Which 
should  you  consider  the  cheapest  food  in  the  list  on  page  17? 
12.  The  most  expensive? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  value  of  break- 
fast foods;  not  a  substitute  for  other  foods,  but  an  agreeable 
addition  4to  the  regular  diet.  Discuss  with  the  pupils  the  nutritive 
value  of  commonly  used  foods.  Many  American  families  are  under- 
fed, and  the  pupils  should  be  made  to  understand  the  possibility  of 
supplying  the  needs  of  the  body  with  low  priced  foods.  Keep  in 
mind  the  value  of  those  foods  that  enable  us  to  eat  with  them  large 
quantities  of  other  cheap  foods  like  bread. 

Obtain  from  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  Far- 
mers' Bulletin  No.  391,  on  the  Economical  Use  of  Meat  in  the 
Home.  In  the  Appendix  to  Ritchie's  Human  Physiology  (the  third 
book  of  this  series)  the  analyses  and  costs  of  a  number  of  foods  are 
given.  A  very  complete  list  of  the  analyses  and  comparative  costs 
of  foods  will  be  found  in  Bulletin  No.  28  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.  This  may  be  obtained  by  sending 
five  cents  to  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Documents,  Washington, 
D.  C. 


CHAPTER  FIVE 

COOKING   FOODS 

IT  would  be  hard  to  think  of  an  article  of  food  more 

pleasant  to  the  taste  and  more  certain  to  agree  with 

the   digestion   than  warm, 

crisp,   brown    toast,    made 

from    light,    well-baked 

bread.    It  would  be   hard 

to  think  of  an  article  of  food 

more    disagreeable    to   the 

taste  and  more  ruinous  to 

the  health  than  rolls  baked 

only  until  the  outer  part  is 

slightly  browned  while  the 

inner  part  of  each   roll  is 

still  a  sticky,  doughy  mass. 

Yet  the  toast  and  the  rolls 

are   made  from   the   same 

materials.     The  difference  is  in  the  way  they  are 

cooked. 

The  importance  of  well-cooked  food.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  greatest  difference  between  the 
food  of  the  rich  and  the  food  of  the  poor  is  in  the 
cooking.  There  is  much  truth  in  this,  for  to  a  very 
considerable  extent  we  all  live  on  the  same  foods. 
It  would  take  a  whole  book  to  discuss  fully  the 
subject  of  cooking,  and  we  cannot  attempt  to  do  this 
here.  There  are,  however,  two  points  in  regard  to 
cooking  that  are  so  important  that  every  one  should 
understand  them. 


FIG.  10.  This  man's  work  is 
so  important  that  he  receives 
a  larger  salary  than  is  usually 
paid  a  lawyer,  doctor,  min- 
ister, or  teacher. 


20  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

The  cooking  of  starchy  foods.  Raw  starch 
is  in  little  hard  grains  that  are  digested  very  slowly. 
When  placed  in  hot  water,  these  grains  swell  up  into 
a  soft  mass.  This  softened  starch  can  then  be 
easily  digested.  Oatmeal  or  corn  meal  that  has  been 
cooked  for  only  a  short  time  is  very  difficult  to  di- 
gest, but  if  these  foods  are  placed  in  a  double  boiler 
and  cooked  for  several  hours  they  are  very  easy  to 
digest.  Thoroughly  baked  bread  is  the  "staff  of 
life,"  and  every  healthy  person  can  digest  it.  But 
half-baked  bread,  with  the  starch  grains  in  it  al- 
most as  hard  as  little  bits  of  wood,  is  ruinous  to  the 
digestion  of  any  one  who  is  forced  to  eat  it.  Vege- 
tables like  potatoes,  turnips,  and  cabbages  are  val- 
uable chiefly  for  the  starch  that  is  in  them,  and  they 
should  be  cooked  until  they  become  soft  and  the 
starch  grains  in  them  are  broken  up. 

The  use  of  fats  in  cooking.  Fat  is  a  most  val- 
uable heating  and  strengthening  food,  but,  like  every 
other  food,  it  may  injure  the  body  if  it  is  taken  in  a 
wrong  way  or  in  too  large  amounts.  When  fat  has 
been  made  very  hot,  as  often  happens  when  food  is 
fried,  acids  that  injure  the  stomach  are  formed  in  it. 
Also,  when  foods  are  coated  with  fat,  the  digestive 
juices  cannot  get  at  them  and  they  are  digested  very 
slowly.  For  this  reason  many  foods  are  much 
harder  to  digest  when  fried  than  when  cooked  in 
other  ways.  Greasy  crullers,  pancakes,  fried  pies, 
and  other  fried  foods  are  injuring  the  digestive  or- 


COOKING  FOODS  21 

gans  of  many  people,  and  the  health  of  many  families 
would  improve  at  once  if  their  frying  pans  were 
thrown  away. 

Questions  :  i.  Why  should  starchy  foods  be  well  cooked? 
2.  Name  some  starchy  foods.  3.  What  injurious  sub- 
stances are  formed  in  fat  when  it  is  heated  very  hot  ? 
4.  Why  are  fried  foods  harder  to  digest  than  foods  that  are 
cooked  in  other  ways? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  One  teacher  who 
has  come  to  the  attention  of  the  writers  of  this  book  has  done  much 
for  the  community  in  which  she  is  working  by  discussing  with  the 
girls  of  her  schopl  the  best  ways  of  cooking  different  foods,  bringing 
samples  of  her  own  cooking  to  school  and  having  the  girls  do  the 
same,  and  in  general  by  showing  that  she  is  interested  in  the  best 
methods  of  preparing  foods  for  use.  Many  good  books  on  the  sub- 
ject may  be  obtained  and  there  are  persons  in  every  locality  whose 
methods  of  cooking  are  worthy  of  study  and  imitation  by  others. 
It  is  not  necessary  for  a  teacher  to  wait  for  a  department  of  domes- 
tic science  before  making  a  beginning  in  this  work,  and  the  fact  that 
the  teacher  considers  the  subject  of  sufficient  importance  to  re- 
ceive serious  consideration  will  in  itself  have  a  most  wholesome 
effect  on  the  mental  attitudes  of  the  pupils.  Discuss  methods  of 
cooking  some  of  the  cheaper  foods  so  that  they  will  be  acceptable 
substitutes  for  those  that  are  more  expensive.  Farmers'  Bulletins 
from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  that  will  be 
found  useful  are  No.  34  on  Meats:  Composition  and  Cooking; 
No.  112  on  Bread  and  Bread  Making;  No.  256  on  the  Preparation 
of  Vegetables  for  the  Table;  No.  359  on  Canning  Vegetables  in 
the  Home.  These  Bulletins  will  be  sent  without  cost  to  anyone 
who  applies  for  them. 


CHAPTER   SIX 

CARING  FOR    FOODS 


FIG.  ii.     Foods  should  be  kept  away  from  the  hands  of  the  public 
and  from  dust  and  flies. 

IF  a  piece  of  meat  is  left  in  a  warm  place,  it  will 
soon  spoil.  But  if  it  is  thoroughly  cooked  and 
tightly  sealed  up  in  a  can,  it  will  keep  for  years.  Or 
if  it  is  placed  where  it  will  remain  frozen,  it  will  not 
decay.  Every  fisherman  or  farmer  knows  that  salt 
helps  to  keep  fish  or  meat  from  spoiling,  and  the 
housekeeper  puts  sugar  in  her  fruits  to  keep  them 
from  souring,  or  to  " preserve"  them. 

What  is  it  that  causes  food  to  spoil?  Why  is  it 
that  food  will  keep  if  it  is  canned,  or  frozen,  or 
heavily  salted,  or  preserved  in  sugar?  What  must 
we  do  with  our  foods  when  we  want  to  keep  them 
from  spoiling  and  becoming  unfit  for  use? 

Spoiling  of  food  caused  by  bacteria.  Spoil- 
ing and  souring  of  food  are  caused  by  bacteria. 
These  are  plants  so  very  small  that  we  can  see  them 
only  with  a  microscope.  Some  kinds  of  bacteria 


22 


CARING  FOR  FOODS 


are  able  to  grow  in  our  bodies  and  cause  sickness. 
These  kinds  we  call  disease  germs.  Many  kinds  of 
bacteria  that  do  not  cause  disease  can  grow  in  our 
foods  and  cause  the  foods  to  spoil  so  that  they  be- 
come unfit  for  use.  The  important  thing  in  the  care 
of  foods  is  to  keep  bacteria  from  growing  in  them. 

Keeping  bacteria  out  of  food  by  cleanliness. 
We  give  bacteria  a  chance  to  get  into  food  by  allow- 
ing dust  to  blow  into  it;  by  allowing  flies  to  crawl 
over  it;  by  allowing  mice,  rats,  and  roaches  to  run 
about  in  pantries;  by  keeping  the  food  in  dirty  ves- 
sels; by  washing  it  with  dirty  water;  by  handling 
it  with  unclean  hands;  and 
in  general  by  failing  to 
keep  it  clean.  Cleanliness  is 
the  first  great  point  in  caring 
for  food,  since  it  keeps  bacteria 
from  getting  into  the  food. 

Keeping  bacteria  from 
growing  in  foods  by  cold. 
Bacteria  grow  very  slowly 
in  foods  that  are  kept  cold, 
and  by  keeping  foods  cold 
we  can  do  much  to  keep  them  fia  ,12'  Forod  should  be 

r  kept  in  a  refrigerator,  and 

from  spoiling.    Do  not  leave  there 

in    a   warm    kitchen    milk, 

meats,     cooked     fruits,     or 

other  foods  that  will  spoil,  but  put  them  at  once  into 

a  refrigerator  with  plenty  of  ice.    If  ice  cannot  be 


should  always  be 
enough  ice  in  the  refrigera- 
tor to  keep  the  food  cold. 


24  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

obtained,  food  should  be  bought  or  cooked  only  as  it 
can  be  used,  for  spoiled  food  is  unfit  for  use.  Cold 
is  the  second  great  point  in  the  care  of  food,  since  it 
keeps  bacteria  from  growing  in  the  food. 

Killing  the  bacteria  in  food  with  heat.  Cook- 
ing food  kills  the  bacteria  in  it  and  for  a  time 
keeps  the  food  from  spoiling.  Milk  vessels  and  other 
vessels  in  which  food  is  kept  should  be  scalded  with 
hot  water  before  they  are  used.  If  this  is  not  done, 
great  numbers  of  bacteria  will  get  into  the  food 
from  the  vessels  and  will  quickly  cause  it  to  spoil. 

Keeping  disease  germs  out  of  foods.  Persons 
who  are  sick  and  persons  who  are  caring  for  the  sick 
often  have  dangerous  disease  germs  on  their  hands. 
It  is  never  safe  for  these  persons  to  handle  food,  for 
if  the  germs  get  from  their  hands  into  the  food  other 
people  are  likely  to  catch  the  disease.  No  one  who 
has  consumption  or  who  has  lately  had  typhoid  fever 
should  have  anything  to  do  with  the  handling  of  food. 

All  foods  should  be  carefully  guarded  from  flies, 
for  the  fly  is  a  great  carrier  of  dangerous  germs. 
It  need  hardly  be  said  that  foods  that  have  been 
handled  in  an  unclean  way,  or  foods  that  have  been 
fingered  over  and  handled  by  the  public,  are  far  more 
likely  to  have  disease  germs  in  them  than  foods  that 
have  been  kept  clean. 

The  danger  in  using  food  preservatives. 
There  are  many  acids  and  other  substances  that  will 
prevent  the  growth  of  bacteria  in  milk  and  other 


CARING  FOR  FOODS  2$ 

foods,  and  will  keep  the  foods  from  spoiling.  Some 
of  these  are  spld  in  drugstores -or  by  agents  and  are 
used  by  housekeepers,  especially  in  canning  fruits. 
Though  some  of  these  substances  are  harmless,  it 
has  been  proved  that  others  are  poisonous,  and  their 
use  in  foods  offered  for  sale  is  forbidden  by  law. 

Questions:  i.  What  causes  foods  to  spoil?  2.  What  are 
bacteria?  3.  How  can  food  be  kept  from  spoiling?  4. 
Mention  some  ways  by  which  bacteria  get  into  food.  5. 
What  is  the  first  great  point  in  caring  for  food?  6.  Why  do 
foods  keep  longer  when  they  are  kept  cold?  7.  Where 
should  foods  be  kept?  8.  What  is  the  second  great  point 
in  the  care  of  foods?  9.  How  can  the  bacteria  in  foods  be 
killed?  10.  How  can  the  germs  on  milk  vessels  and  food 
vessels  be  killed?  n.  Why  should  this  be  done?  12.  How 
do  disease  germs  often  get  into  food?  13.  Is  it  wise  or  un- 
wise to  use  food  preservatives? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  The  importance  of 
proper  care  of  food  and  food  receptacles.  Fill  small,  clean  bottles 
or  jars  with  milk  or  cooked  fruits.  Keep  one  in  a  warm  room,  the 
other  in  the  coldest  place  possible.  Let  the  children  notice,which 
sours  first.  When  both  have  become  sour,  empty  the  bottles,  scald 
one  carefully,  rinse  the  other  with  cold  water,  and  refill.  Put  them 
away  together  and  let  the  children  watch  for  signs  pf  souring. 

Good  and  bad  methods  of  caring  for  milk.  The  importance  of 
keeping  free  from  germs  the  milk  given  to  a  baby.  The  care  of 
school  lunches.  Foods  purchased  by  school  children  that  are  likely 
to  contain  large  numbers  of  bacteria.  Practical  methods  of  keep- 
ing flies  out  of  a  kitchen.  How  to  destroy  flies  and  cockroaches. 
Obtain  from  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C., 
Farmers'  Bulletins  155,  How  Insects  Affect  Health;  74,  Milk  as  a 
Food;  and  375,  Care  of  Food  in  the  Home.  These  are  free.  Many 
practical  suggestions  for  the  care  of  foods  will  be  found  in  them. 


CHAPTER   SEVEN 


THE  DIGESTIVE   ORGANS  AND   THEIR  WORK 

SUPPOSE  that  you  are  hungry  and  hold  a  piece  of 
bread  in  your  hand.    Your  brain,  your  muscles,  and 

all  the  parts  of  your 
body  need  the  bread 
to  nourish  them.  How 
can  you  get  the  bread 

esopbagus-^-%  \^  to  them?     By  eating 

it,  of  course.  It  may 
seem  strange  that  the 
way  to  the  brain  is 
down  the  throat,  but 
nevertheless  this  is  the 
-stomacb  road  the  food  travels 
to  get  to  the  brain. 

Is  a  piece  of  bread 
as  you  hold  it  in  your 
hand  ready  to  be  used 
by  the  different  parts  of  the  body?  Where  does  it  go 
after  you  eat  it  and  what  happens  to  it?  We  speak 
about  digesting  our  food,  but  what  do  we  mean  by 
digestion?  We  hear  people  talk  about  having  trouble 
with  their  digestive  organs.  What  organs  are  these, 
where  are  they,  what  do  they  do?  What  difference 
does  it  make  to  us  if  they  do  get  out  of  order?  In 
this  chapter  we  shall  find  the  answers  to  some  of 
these  questions. 

Where  the  food  goes  after  it  is  eaten.     After 
the  food  is  eaten,  it  passes  from  the  mouth  back- 

26 


small 
intestine 

large 
intestine 


FIG.  13.     The  alimentary  canal. 


THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  WORK    2/ 

wards  into  the  throat,  and  then  into  the  esophagus. 
At  the  lower  end  of  the  esophagus  it  enters  the  stom- 
ach, and  from  the  stomach  it  passes  on  into  the  small 
intestine  and  the  large  intestine.  As  the  food  passes 
through  this  long  canal,  it  is  digested  and  then 
taken  through  the  wall  of  the  intestine  into  the 
blood. 

What  happens  to  food  during  digestion.  The 
food  that  we  eat  goes  into  the  stomach  in  a  dough- 
like  mass.  Before  it  can  be  used  by  the  body,  it  must 
soak  through  the  walls  of  the  intestine  and  get  into 
the  blood.  In  order  to  get 
through  this  wall  the  food 
must  be  dissolved.  The  sa- 
liva of  the  mouth  and  the 
juices  in  the  stomach  and 
intestine  act  on  the  foods  in 
such  a  way  as  to  dissolve  them. 
The  process  of  dissolving  the 
foods  is  called  digestion,  and 
no  solid  food  can  get  into 
the  blood  until  it  has  been 
digested. 

Digestion  in  the  mouth.  , 

FIG.  14.    The  salivary  glands. 
In   the   mouth  the  food  is 

ground  into  pieces  by  the  teeth,  and  is  mixed 
with  the  saliva.  The  saliva  dissolves  some  of  the 
starch  and  thus  begins  the  process  of  digestion.  The 
saliva  comes  from  three  pairs  of  salivary  glands. 


28  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

These  lie  under  the  tongue,  under  the  back  corners 
of  the  lower  jaw,  and  in  the  cheeks  below  and  in 
front  of  the  ears.  Each  gland  is  a  little  structure 
that  forms  saliva  and  empties  it  into  the  mouth 
through  a  little  tube  or  duct. 

The  stomach.    After  the  food  has  been  ground  by 
the  teeth  and  moistened  by  the  saliva,  it  is  swallowed 


from  liver 


ladder 

FIG.  15.     The  stomach. 

and  passes  down  into  the  stomach.  One  use  of  the 
stomach  is  to  serve  as  a  storehouse  for  food,  so  that 
a  considerable  amount  of  food  can  be  eaten  at  one 
time  and  kept  until  the  body  can  use  it.  The  stom- 
ach also  pours  out  gastric  juice  on  the  food.  The 
gastric  juice  digests  a  large  part  of  the  meat,  eggs, 
and  other  building  foods  and  gets  them  ready  for 
use  in  the  body.  An  acid  in  the  gastric  juice  kills 
most  of  the  bacteria  that  get  into  the  stomach  in 


THE  DIGESTIVE   ORGANS  AND   THEIR    WORK    29 

food  and  water,  and  thus  helps  to  protect  us  from 
disease  germs.. 

The  liver  and  the  pancreas.  The  liver,  which 
weighs  nearly  four  pounds,  lies  on  the  right  side  of 
the  body,  opposite  the  stomach.  It  makes  a  green- 
ish yellow  liquid  called  Hie.  This  liquid  flows  into 
the  small  intestine  through  a  duct  from  the  liver  and 
assists  in  the  digestion  of  .food.  The  pancreas  is  a 
long,  flat  organ  that  lies  below  the  stomach.  It  has 
a  duct  that  joins  the  duct  from  the  liver  and  empties 
into  the  small  intestine.  The  juice  from  the  pan- 
creas does  a  very  important  part  of  the  work  of 
digesting  the  foods  in  the  small  intestine. 

The  small  intestine.  All  along  the  walls  of  the 
small  intestine  are  little  glands  that  pour  out  juices 
to  assist  in  the  digestion  of  the  food.  The  food 
moves  slowly  through  the  small  intestine,  which  is 
more  than  twenty  feet  long,  requiring  from  ten-  to 
twenty  hours  to  complete  this  part  of  its  journey. 

Digestion  in  the  small  intestine.  After  the 
food  passes  from  the  stomach  into  the  small  intes- 
tine, the  juices  from  the  liver  and  pancreas  are 
poured  in  with  it,  and  the  juices  from  the  intestinal 
glands  also  are  mixed  with  it.  As  the  food  moves 
slowly  along  the  intestine,  the  juices  finish  the  pro- 
cess of  digestion.  The  food  then  soaks  through 
into  the  great  network  of  little  blood  vessels  that  are 
in  the  wall  of  the  intestine,  and  is  carried  all  through 
the  body.  Thus  the  solid  food  that  we  eat  is  dis- 


30  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

solved  and  taken  into  the  body  to  nourish  all  its 
parts. 

The  large  intestine.  In  all  food  there  is  some 
refuse  matter  like  the  woody  matter  in  cabbages  and 
potatoes,  the  skins  of  fruits,  and  the  tough  fibers 
of  meats.  This  matter  passes  on  into  the  large  intes- 
tine. Nothing  is  more  important  to  the  health  than 


FIG.  1 6.  The  lining  of  the  small  intestine  is  thickly  covered 
with  little  finger-like  structures,  called  villi.  The  digested  food 
is  absorbed  into  the  blood  vessels  that  are  in  these  structures. 
The  picture  shows  villi  highly  magnified. 

that  this  refuse  matter  be  cleared  out  of  the  large 
intestine  every  day  and  not  allowed  to  lie  in  the 
intestine  to  sour  and  decay. 

The  importance  of  caring  for  the  digestive 
organs.  The  work  of  digesting  the  food  is  so  im- 
portant that  the  organs  that  do  this  work  fill  nearly 
the  whole  cavity  of  the  body.  "It  is  not  what  we 
eat  but  what  we  digest  that  makes  us  strong."  This 


THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  WORK    31 

is  an  old  saying,  and  it  is  a  true  one.  We  cannot 
have  strong  bodies  if  we  do  not  have  healthy  diges- 
tive organs  to  prepare  food  for  them.  In  the  next 
chapter  we  shall  study  some  ways  of  keeping  the 
digestive  organs  in  health. 

Questions:  i.  What  do  the  digestive  juices  do  to  the  foods 
during  digestion?  2.  What  digestive  juice  is  found  in  the 
mouth?  3.  Where  does  it  come  from?  4.  How  many 
pairs  of  salivary  glands  are  there?  5.  Where  are  they  found? 
6.  Give  two  uses  of  the  stomach.  7.  What  kind  of  foods 
does  the  gastric  juice  digest?  8.  What  does  the  acid  in 
the  gastric  juice  do?  9.  Where  is  the  liver  found  in  the 
body?  10.  How  large  is  it?  n.  What  liquid  comes  from 
it?  12.  Where  in  the  body  is  the  pancreas?  13.  Into 
what  is  the  juice  from  the  pancreas  emptied?  14.  How 
long  is  the  small  intestine?  15.  What  is  found  along  its 
walls?  1 6.  How  long  does  it  take  the  food  to  pass  through 
the  small  intestine?  17.  What  is  happening  to  the  food 
while  it  makes  this  journey?  18.  Where  does  the  food  go 
after  it  has  been  digested?  19.  What  part  of  our  food  goes 
on  into  the  large  intestine?  20.  WTiy  is  it  important  for 
us  to  care  for  our  digestive  organs? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Where  the  gastric 
juice  comes  from,  and  what  habits  the  pupils  have  that  may  inter- 
fere with  the  flow  of  it.  The  injury  to  health  resulting  from 
constipation. 

Illustrate  absorption  by  showing  how  salt  or  sugar  dissolved  in 
water  will  pass  through  a  paper.  Show  digestion  by  putting  a  cube 
of  hard  boiled  white  of  egg  into  a  glass  of  water  with  a  few  drops  of 
acid  and  a  little  pepsin.  The  lining  of  a  calf's  stomach  dried  and 
pulverized  may  be  used  instead  of  pepsin.  Prepare  materials  in 
another  glass  in  the  same  way,  but  first  cut  the  egg  into  fine  pieces 
to  show  the  advantages  of  thoroughly  chewing  food.  Set  both 
glasses  in  a  warm  place  (about  100  degrees  is  best)  for  a  few  hours. 


CHAPTER  EIGHT 

KEEPING  THE  DIGESTIVE   ORGANS  IN  HEALTH 


To  a  great  extent  life  is  colored  by  the  way  the  di- 
gestive organs  do  their  work.  One  man  has  a  good 

digestion,  and  he  sees  sun- 
shine and  success  before 
him.  Another  is  afflicted 
with  dyspepsia,  and  he  ex- 
pects to  meet  only  clouds 
and  failure  on  his  way. 
Truly  one  might  almost 
be  led  to  think  that  the 
mind  is  in  the  stomach 
and  not  in  the  brain,  for 
we  look  at  the  whole  world 
through  rose-colored  or 
FIG.  17.  William  Ewart  Glad-  blue  glasses  according  to 

stone,  who  was  called  "England's  t^e  way  we  succeed  in 
Grand  Old  Man."  He  believed  ,.  .  , 

that  his  vigorous  old  age  was  in  digesting  what  we  eat. 

large  part  due  to  his  habit  of  In  most  cases,  troubles 
cutting  his  food  into  small  pieces  of  ^  di  tiye  ns  are 

and  chewing  it  thoroughly.  ° 

brought  on  gradually  by 

improper  habits  of  eating,  and  in  youth  every  one 
has  it  largely  in  his  own  power  to  decide  whether 
he  will  go  into  later  life  with  dyspepsia,  or  with 
digestive  organs  that  can  do  their  work.  In  this 
chapter  we  shall  learn  something  about  caring  for 
these  organs,  but  you  must  understand  that  knowing 
hygienic  rules  will  not  improve  your  health  if  you 
do  not  put  these  rules  into  practice.  It  will  do  you 


KEEPING  DIGESTIVE   ORGANS  IN  HEALTH      33 

no  good  to  understand  about  the  benefits  that  come 
from  thoroughly  chewing  your  food  if  you  swallow 
your  lunch  "down  in  large  masses,  and  if  you  take 
alcoholic  drinks  into  your  stomach  the  delicate  lining 
of  the  stomach  will  not  be  protected  by  anything 
you  have  read  in  a  book.  It  requires  doing  as  well 
as  knowing  to  keep  the  digestive  organs  in  health. 

The  importance  of  thoroughly  chewing  the 
food.  People  who  make  it  a  rule  to  chew  every 
mouthful  of  food  into  a  perfect  paste  find  that 
their  health  is  very  greatly  improved  by  doing  so. 
Just  as  sugar  dissolves  more  quickly  in  a  glass 
of  water  when  it  is  in  fine  grains  than  when  it  is  in 
large,  hard  lumps,  so  food  ground  into  bits  by  the 
teeth  is  digested  and  dissolved  more  quickly  in  the 
stomach  and  intestine  than  food  that  has  been  swal- 
lowed in  large  pieces.  Thorough  chewing  of  the  food 
carries  us  far  on  the  way  to  a  good  digestion,  and  a 
good  digestion  sets  us  well  on  the  road  to  good  health. 

Drinking  liquids  at  meals.  A  glass  of  water 
taken  at  mealtime  in  small  sips  moistens  the  food 
and  helps  to  mix  the  saliva  thoroughly  with  it,  thus 
causing  the  starch  to  be  more  quickly  digested. 
Water  taken  in  larger  amounts  hinders  digestion, 
especially  if  the  food  is  washed  down  without  being 
properly  chewed.  The  water  should  not  be  ice  cold, 
because  cold  drinks  chill  the  stomach  and  hinder 
digestion.  Coffee  and  tea  hinder  the  work  of  the 
saliva,  and  these  drinks  should  be  used  sparingly 

3 


34 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


by  every  one  and  should  be  avoided  entirely  by 
those  who  have  trouble  in  digesting  starchy  foods. 

Eating  too  much  at  one  time.  Another  fre- 
quent cause  of  indigestion  is  eating  too  much. 

Do  not  overload  your 
stomach  by  giving  it  more 
food  than  it  can  digest  for 
hours,  for  if  you  do  the 
food  will  sour  in  your 
stomach  and  you  will 
suffer. 

Eating  a  whole  meal 
of  one  kind  of  food. 
Sometimes  we  find  a  child 
who  wants  to  make  a 
whole  meal  of  chicken,  or 

FIG.  18.  It  is  hard  for  a  dys-  green  peas,  or  syrup,  cake, 
peptic  to  be  happy  and  efficient.  ' 

strawberries,    or    some 

other  article  of  food  that  he  particularly  likes.  Eat- 
ing in  this  way  throws  all  the  work  upon  one  of  the 
digestive  juices  while  the  other  juices  are  idle.  This 
makes  the  work  of  digestion  go  on  very  slowly, 
and  the  food  has  time  to  ferment  and  sour  before 
digestion  is  finished. 

Eating  at  irregular  times.  Our  digestive  organs 
are  ready  to  digest  a  meal  at  the  time  at  which  we 
usually  eat.  Therefore  one  should  not  eat  dinner  at 
twelve  o'clock  one  day  and  at  two  o'clock  the  next 
day.  Do  not  get  so  busy  at  your  play  that  you  do 


KEEPING  DIGESTIVE   ORGANS  IN  HEALTH      35 

not  have  time  to  eat,  and  do  not  form  the  habit  of 
eating  betwee^i  meals  or  whenever  you  can  get  some- 
thing that  you  like  to  eat.  Have  regular  hours  for 
your  meals  and  give  your  digestive  organs  a  chance 
to  rest  between  meals,  for  they  need  time  for  rest 
just  as  much  as  your  muscles  do. 

Indigestible  lunches.  Many  persons,  among  them 
many  school  children,  are  ruining  their  digestions 
by  the  kind  of  lunches  that  they  eat.  They  are  not 
able  to  be  at  home  for  the  noonday  meal,  and  in- 
stead of  eating  a  sensible,  nourishing  lunch,  they 
load  their  digestive  organs  with  candy,  chocolate, 
pickles,  olives,  pie,  cake,  bananas,  peanuts,  ice 
cream,  soda  fountain  drinks,  or  almost  anything 
else  they  like  and  can  get. 

This  is  the  wrong  way  to  select  a  lunch,  and  the 
person  who  follows  this  plan  must  suffer.  Candy 
probably  does  more  harm  than  any  other  of 
these  foods.  It  is  composed  chiefly  of  sugar,  and 
when  taken  in  small  amounts  and  with  other  foods 
it  is  very  nourishing.  But  the  person  who  eats  a 
whole  bag  of  candy  at  one  time  treats  his  stomach 
about  as  unwisely  as  if  he  should  drink  a  whole 
cupful  of  thick  sugar  syrup  at  once. 

Coarse  foods  necessary  to  the  health.  The 
body  needs  a  considerable  quantity  of  such  foods  as 
wheat  bread,  corn  bread,  potatoes,  cabbages,  tur- 
nips, and  other  foods  that  have  large  amounts  of 
tough  refuse  matter  in  them.  These  bulky  mate- 


36  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

rials  cause  the  wastes  to  be  more  promptly  moved 
along  the  large  intestine.  This  is  very  necessary, 
for  if  the  wastes  are  allowed  to  lie  in  the  large  in- 
testine bacteria  will  grow  in  them  and  form  poisons. 
These  poisons  will  then  soak  through  the  wall  of  the 
intestine  into  the  blood,  poisoning  the  whole  body 


FIG.  19.     Outdoor  life  and  exercise  are  very  important  in  keeping 
the  digestive  organs  in  health. 

and  causing  headaches.  Those  who  live  upon  the 
choicest  and  most  expensive  foods  have  health  little, 
if  any,  better  than  have  those  who  live  on  the  plain- 
est and  simplest  fare.  Probably  the  principal  reason 
for  this  is  that  those  who  live  on  a  plain  diet  get  more 
of  the  coarser  kinds  of  food  and  the  wastes  are  more 
promptly  moved  along  through  the  intestine. 

Alcohol    injurious    to   the    digestive   organs. 
Beer,  wine,  and  whiskey  contain  alcohol,  and  they 


KEEPING  DIGESTIVE   ORGANS  IN  HEALTH      37 

are  all  injurious  to  the  digestive  organs,  even  when 
they  are  taken  in  small  amounts.  They  injure  the 
stomach  especially  and  interfere  with  its  work,  so 
that  hard  masses  of  food  pass  undigested  into  the  in- 
testine. Bacteria  then  grow  in  this  food  and  form 
poisons  that  are  carried  through  the  body.  Alcohol 
is  also  the  chief  cause  of  diseases  of  the  liver. 

Questions:  i.  Why  is  it  important  to  keep  the  digestive 
organs  in  health?  2.  By  what  are  digestive  troubles  usually 
caused?  3.  What  must  we  do  in  order  to  get  any  benefit 
from  the  study  of  rules  of  hygiene?  4.  What  effect  on 
digestion  has  thorough  chewing  of  the  food?  5.  Why  should 
water  be  taken  at  meals?  6.  What  harm  will  a  glassful  of 
water  do  if  it  is  all  taken  at  one  time?  7.  What  is  the  best 
rule  to  follow  in  the  use  of  tea  or  coffee?  8.  Why  cannot  we 
eat  enough  food  at  one  time  to  supply  us  all  day?  9.  Why 
should  every  meal  be  made  up  of  several  kinds  of  food? 
10.  Why  should  we  eat  at  regular  hours  every  day?  n. 
What  are  some  foods  that  should  not  be  taken  for  lunch? 
12.  Of  what  is  candy  chiefly  made?  13.  Why  should  one 
eat  only  a  small  amount  of  candy  at  one  time?  14.  Why 
are  coarse  foods  necessary?  15.  What  effect  has  alcohol  on 
the  digestive  organs?  16.  What  is  the  best  rule  to  follow 
in  regard  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  life  and  teach- 
ings of  Horace  Fletcher.  Healthful  school  lunches.  Necessity 
for  the  leisurely  eating  of  school  lunches.  Soda  fountain  drinks. 
Outdoor  life  and  exercise  as  a  preventive  of  constipation. 


CHAPTER  NINE 

THE   CARE  OF  THE  TEETH 

THE  mouth  cavity  has  been  called  the  Gateway  of 
Life,  and  the  care  of  the  mouth  may  well  be  called 
the  Gateway  of  Health.  Horace 
•enamel  Fletcher  has  said  that  "  the  whole 
problem  of  nutrition  is  settled  in 


pulp 
cavity 


the   first    three    inches   of    the    ali- 


mentary  canal,"   and   there    is  far 
more  truth  in  this  than  most  per- 
sons   realize.      All    about    us    are 
persons   who   pay  a  great   deal  of 
FIG!  20.     The    attention    to    the    purity   of    their 
structure    of   a    food.      Yet   the  teeth  of  many  of 
these  persons  are  so  unclean  and  so 
decayed  that  they  cannot  chew  a  single  bite  of  food 
without  filling  it  with  millions  of  bacteria.     It  is 
hardly  worth  while   to    take   care   of  food  for   a 
person  who  is  going  to  spoil  every  particle  of  it 
before  he  swallows  it,  and  the  health  of  the  nation 
demands  that  the  people  have  a  better  understand- 
ing of  the  importance  of  the  teeth. 

The  importance  of  caring  for  the  teeth.  In  the 
German  army  the  teeth  and  toothbrushes  of  the 
soldiers  are  inspected  each  morning  as  regularly  as 
the  guns  are  inspected.  In  the  United  States  army 
a  man  is  not  accepted  as  a  soldier  unless  his  teeth 
are  in  good  condition.  Some  German  life  insurance 
companies  employ  dentists  to  care  for  the  teeth  of 
their  policy  holders,  because  they  find  it  is  cheaper 

38 


THE   CARE   OF  THE   TEETH  39 

to  do  this  than  to  pay  for  the  sickness  and  deaths 
that  are  caused  by  bad  teeth.  Over  275,000  school 
children  were  examined  in  New  York  City,  and 
more  than  one  half  of  them  had  teeth  that  needed 
treatment.  Facts  like  these  show  how  important 
persons  high  in  authority  consider  the  teeth  and 
how  much  the  teeth  of  the  average  person  are  in 
need  of  care. 

Unclean  and  decaying  teeth  a  cause  of  ill  health. 
Unclean  teeth  and  decaying  teeth  form  a  breed- 
ing place  for  millions  of  bacteria  of  many  differ- 
ent kinds.  These  bacteria  become  mixed  with  the 
food  while  it  is  being  chewed,  and  all  day  they 
are  passing  down  the  throat  hi  streams.  In  the 
stomach  and  intestine  they  ferment  and  sour  the 
food,  and  in  this  way  seriously  interfere  with  the 
health  of  the  body.  Decaying  teeth  and  sore  gums 
also  cause  people  to  swallow  their  food  without 
chewing  it  properly,  and  we  have  already  learned 
how  ruinous  this  is  to  the  health.  It  is  believed 
also  that  bad  teeth  are  a  cause  of  adenoids  (page  59) 
and  of  trouble  in  the  nose. 

Unclean  teeth  and  bad  teeth  a  cause  of  germ 
diseases.  Bad  teeth  and  unclean  teeth  cause  germ 
diseases  in  two  ways.  In  the  first  place,  they  inter- 
fere with  the  digestion  and  weaken  the  body,  so 
that  if  disease  germs  get  into  the  body  we  are  not 
able  to  resist  them.  One  of  the  first  things  to  do  in 
the  treatment  of  a  consumptive  is  to  get  the  teeth 


4o 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


in  good  condition,  so  that  the  food  will  nourish  the 
body  and  build  up  the  strength.  In  the  second 
place,  unclean  and  decaying  teeth  furnish  a  splendid 

place  for  any  disease  germs 
that  get  into  the  mouth  and 
multiply  until  a  time  comes 
when  the  body  is  weak 
enough  for  them  to  attack 
it.  Just  how  often  disease 
germs  do  this  is  not  known, 
but  it  is  known  that  pneu- 
monia germs  are  in  the 
mouths  of  many  people; 
that  the  diphtheria  germ 
sometimes  lives  for  a  long 
time  in  the  mouths  of  per- 
sons who  do  not  have  the 
disease;  that  the  same 
FIG.  21.  Teeth  like  these  are  germs  that  cause  sore  gums, 
a  cause  of  indigestion  and  fur-  abscesses  in  the  mouth,  and 

msn  a  place  for  the  growth  of  . 

disease  germs.  decay   in    the   teeth,    also 

cause  tonsillitis,  sore  throat, 

and  appendicitis;  that  certain  other  disease  germs, 
including  the  germ  of  consumption,  have  been  found 
in  unclean  mouths;  and  that  these  germs  die  out 
more  quickly  in  a  clean  mouth  than  in  an  unclean 
one.  There  is,  therefore,  no  reason  to  doubt  that 
bad  teeth  are  a  cause  not  only  of  indigestion  but  of 
many  other  forms  of  disease. 


THE   CARE   OF  THE    TEETH  41 

Decay  of  the  teeth  caused  by  failure  to  keep 
them  clean.  Decay  of  the  teeth  is  caused  by  bac- 
teria growing  in  the  food  materials  that  stick  to  the 
teeth  and  lodge  between  them.  Clearly,  then,  the 
way  to  keep  the  teeth  from  decaying  is  to  keep  them 
clean.  They  ought  to  be  cleaned 
every  time  they  are  used,  just  as  our 
dishes  are  washed  every  time  they  are 
used.  To  keep  them  sound  they 
ought  at  least  to  be  washed  after 
breakfast  and  before  going  to  bed, 
while  washing  the  teeth  (and  the 
tongue  and  gums  as  well)  before 
breakfast  saves  the  digestive  organs  FIG  22 
from  the  millions  of  bacteria  that  her  of  tooth- 
have  grown  in  the  mouth  during  'the  brushes ,  in  the 

.   ,  _        ,         .  111     same  holder  bring 

night.  In  cleaning  the  teeth,  brush  together  a  choice 
them  thoroughly  both  inside  and  out,  c  o  1  le  c  t  i  o  n  of 
and  brush  them  downwards  rather  {^iT  should"  °be 
than  sidewise.  A  moderately  stiff  kept  in  a  separate 
brush  should  be  used,  even  though  the  holder- 
gums  bleed,  for  the  gums  need  the  exercise.  A  tooth 
powder  or  tooth  paste  is  a  great  help  in  getting  the 
teeth  clean.  It  is  very  important  to  remove  food 
from  between  the  teeth,  for  decay  nearly  always 
begins  in  the  places  where  the  food  lodges.  Sore 
gums  can  usually  be  cured  by  keeping  the  teeth  clean. 
Bad  teeth  a  cause  of  decay  in  other  teeth.  As 
germs  from  a  case  of  diphtheria  may  spread  through 


42  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

a  whole  classroom  and  cause  the  disease  in  every 
child  in  the  room,  so  germs  may  spread  from  a  cavity 
in  a  tooth  and  cause  decay  in  other  teeth.  We  should 
therefore  watch  for  decayed  teeth  and  have  them 
attended  to  promptly,  because  a  single  neglected 
tooth  may  cause  the  decay  of  many  others. 

Visiting  the  dentist.  When  a  tooth  begins  to 
decay,  it  should  be  filled  by  a  dentist  at  once.  The 
sooner  this  is  done  the  better,  for  it  costs  less  to  fill 
a  small  cavity  than  a  large  one,  it  causes  less  pain, 
it  leaves  the  tooth  in  better  condition,  and  it  may 
save  the  other  teeth  from  decay.  A  tooth  should 
not  be  extracted  if  it  can  be  saved,  for  the  loss  of 
one  tooth  affects  the  grinding  power  of  four  others. 
No  bridgework  or  artificial  teeth  can  do  the  work 
of  the  natural  teeth  in  chewing  the  solid  food  that 
we  ought  to  eat.  Every  one  should  have  his  teeth 
looked  over  by  a  dentist  once  or  twice  a  year,  have 
them  cleaned  if  they  need  it,  and  have  any  small 
cavities  filled.  Just  as  it  is  better  and  cheaper  to 
prevent  sickness  than  to  try  to  cure  it,  so  it  is  better 
to  keep  the  teeth  sound  than  to  try  to  repair  them 
after  they  decay,  or  to  replace  them  after  they 
are  gone.  "It  is  better  to  take  pains  than  to  have 
pains  take  you." 

The  danger  of  breaking  the  enamel.  The  ex- 
posed part  of  a  tooth  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  very 
hard,  glistening,  white  material  called  enamel.  This 
is  brittle  like  glass,  and  can  be  easily  chipped  and 


THE   CARE   OF  THE   TEETH  43 

broken.  If  the  enamel  of  a  tooth  is  once  broken  off, 
it  is  never  replaced,  and  the  tooth  is  likely  to  de- 
cay. Biting  on  hard  objects  like  nuts,  opening  a 
knife  blade  with  the  teeth,  picking  the  teeth  with  a 
pin  or  metal  toothpick,  and  similar  habits,  should 
be  avoided,  as  they  are  likely  to  splinter  the  enamel. 

Caring  for  the  first  set  of  teeth.  The  first 
set  of  teeth  need  the  care  of  a  dentist  as  much  as  the 
second  set.  Toothache  hurts  every  one  alike;  swal- 
lowing the  food  without  properly  chewing  it  is  harm- 
ful to  young  as  well  as  old  people,  and  bacteria  from 
a  decayed  tooth  passing  down  the  throat  injure  a 
child  as  much  as  they  do  an  older  person.  If  cav- 
ities in  the  teeth  of  the  first  set  are  not  filled,  the 
decay  may  spread  to  the  teeth  of  the  second  set  as 
they  come  in.  If  the  first  teeth  are  pulled,  the  jaws 
sometimes  fail  to  grow  as  they  should,  and  for  lack 
of  space  the  second  teeth  may  come  in  crowded  and 
uneven.  Another  important  reason  for  keeping  the 
first  set  of  teeth  sound  is  to  prevent  forming  the 
habit  of  swallowing  food  unchewed. 

Straightening  irregular  teeth.  Because  of  breath- 
ing through  the  mouth,  thumb-sucking,  insufficient 
use  in  chewing,  or  for  other  reasons,  the  teeth  some- 
times come  in  crooked.  This  not  only  makes  them 
less  useful  than  they  should  be  in  chewing  the  food, 
but  spoils  the  appearance  of  the  face.  Wonders  in 
straightening  the  teeth  can  be  done  by  a  dentist  who 
understands  this  kind  of  work.  Not  only  can  ir- 


44  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

regular  teeth  be  straightened,  but  the  crowded  teeth 
of  a  young  person  can  be  spread  apart,  and  the 
bones  of  the  jaw  be  made  to  grow  until  the  teeth 
have  room.  In  this  way  a  weak-looking  chin  can  be 
made  to  grow  into  one  that  is  square  and  strong. 


FIGS.  23  and  24.  A  boy  whose  teeth  need  straightening,  and 
the  same  boy  several  years  after  the  straightening  was  done. 
Not  only  were  his  teeth  made  more  useful,  but  the  lower  jaw 
grew  until  the  appearance  of  the  lower  part  of  the  face  was 
changed.  Notice  how  the  weak  chin  developed  into  one  of 
strength  and  firmness.  (After  photographs  in  The  Popular 
Science  Monthly  for  July,  1909.) 

The  advantage  of  having  good  teeth.  Good 
teeth  are  important  from  the  standpoint  of  health, 
but  there  are  still  other  good  reasons  why  you  should 
keep  your  teeth  white  and  clean.  See  how  many  of 
these  reasons  you  can  give. 

Questions  :  i.  Mention  some  facts  that  show  how  impor- 
tant the  teeth  are.  2.  Tell  two  ways  in  which  bad  teeth 
injure  the  health.  3.  Give  two  ways  by  which  bad  teeth 


THE   CARE   OF  THE   TEETH  45 

cause  germ  diseases.  4.  What  causes  decay  in  teeth?  5. 
How  can  decay  be  prevented?  6.  How  often  ought  the 
teeth  to  be  cleaned?  7.  Why  is  it  important  to  remove 
particles  of  food  from  between  the  teeth?  8.  What  effect 
has  a  decaying  tooth  on  the  other  teeth?  9.  Tell  why  it 
is  best  to  visit  a  dentist  occasionally  and  have  the  teeth 
given  the  care  that  they  need.  10.  What  is  enamel?  n. 
Mention  some  ways  by  which  the  enamel  may  be  injured. 
12.  What  often  happens  if  the  enamel  on  a  tooth  is 
broken?  13.  Why  should  the  first  set  of  teeth  be  cared  for 
by  a  dentist?  14.  What  should  be  done  with  crowded  and 
uneven  teeth? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Why  a  tooth  aches. 
(Illustrate  structure  by  decayed  teeth,  which  may  be  secured 
from  a  dentist.)  How  to  distinguish  the  first  permanent  molar 
from  a  temporary  tooth.  What  happens  to  meat  or  other  food 
matter  if  it  is  left  in  a  warm  place  like  the  mouth.  How  the  teeth 
can  be  kept  clean  by  a  child  who  has  no  toothbrush.  What  it 
would  cost  to  buy  toothbrushes  for  a  person  for  twenty  years, 
and  what  it  costs  to  have  a  badly  decayed  set  of  teeth  repaired. 

Hopkins'  The  Care  of  the  Teeth  (published  by  D.  Appleton  & 
Company,  New  York)  is  an  excellent  little  book  for  teachers 
and  parents. 


CHAPTER  TEN 

THE   AIR  WE  BREATHE 

CATO,  a  Roman  philosopher,  once  said  that  he  could 
kill  himself  at  any  time  by  holding  his  breath.  Cato 

probably  knew  more  about 
philosophy  than  he  knew 
about  physiology,  for  he  was 
not  correct  in  this  statement. 
Try  it  yourself,  and  you  will 
find  that  you  can  hardly  hold 
your  breath  for  a  minute. 
Spoiled  food  and  unclean 
water  we  can  refuse,  but  the 
air  that  comes  to  us  we 
must  breathe,  whether  it  be 
clear  or  smoky,  pure  or  dust- 
FIG.  25.  Experiment  show-  laden.  Nearly  a  thousand 

ing  that  a  flame  cannot  burn  dmes  an  hour  we  take  a 
without  oxygen. 

fresh  supply  into  the  lungs. 

It  is  clear  that  no  dwelling,  schoolhouse,  or  factory 
should  be  built  without  providing  some  way  of  giving 
the  people  who  must  live  or  work  in  it  a  supply  of 
fresh,  life-giving  air. 

Why  the  body  must  have  air.  About  one  fifth 
of  the  air  is  oxygen.  Oxygen  is  constantly  used  in  the 
body,  and  without  it  we  cannot  live  for  even  five 
minutes.  Set  a  glass  vessel  over  a  burning  candle  so 
that  no  air  can  get  in,  and  you  will  see  the  flame 
slowly  die  out  for  lack  of  oxygen.  So  the  heat  and 

strength  and  life  of  your  body  will  die  out  if  its 

46 


THE  AIR    WE  BREATHE 


47 


supply  of  oxygen  is  cut  off.    The  first  reason  why  the 
body  needs  air  is  to  get  oxygen. 

All  the  time  we  are  breathing  out  from  the  lungs 
a  gas  called  carbon  dioxid.  This  gas  is  very  poison- 
ous to  us.  We  must  keep  breathing  the  air  into  the 
lungs  in  order  that,  as  it  passes  out  again,  it  may 
carry  the  carbon  dioxid  out  of  the  body;  otherwise 
the  body  will  die.  The 
second  reason  why  we 
must  have  air  is  to  get 
rid  of  carbon  dioxid. 

The  necessity  for 
ventilation.  Each  of 
us  breathes  from  fif- 
teen to  nineteen  cubic 
feet,  or  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  bushels,  of 
air  every  hour.  Each 
cubic  foot  of  air  which 
has  passed  through  the 


opening 
of  tube 
from 
the  ear 


larynx 


FIG.  26.     The  air  passages  of  the 
head  and  throat. 


lungs  is  so  impure  that 

it   makes    nearly    200 

cubic  feet  of  air  unfit 

for  our  use.    In  houses, 

which  are  merely  big 

boxes  shut  in  so  that  the  air  inside  them  cannot  mix 

freely  with  the   air   outside,  the  air  is  soon  unfit 

for  breathing,  unless  we  can  get  great  quantities  of 

fresh  air  into  the  houses  from  the  outside.      Every 


48  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

hour  about  3000  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  are  needed 
by  each  person  in  a  building,  and  how  to  get 
this  air  in  without  causing  cold  draughts  is  the 
problem  of  ventilation.  No  one  can  afford  to 
leave  the  problem  unsolved,  for  to  breathe  bad  air 
from  day  to  day  causes  one  to  tire  easily  and  to 
lose  strength,  to  become  pale  and  dull,  and,  worst 
of  all,  gradually  to  lose  the  power  to  resist  disease 
germs. 

Crowded  buildings  often  overheated.  It  is 
probable  that  many  of  the  headaches  that  follow 
staying  in  a  crowded  room  are  caused  by  the  over- 
heating and  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere.  At 
least,  it  has  been  found  that  a  crowded  room  is  much 
more  comfortable  if  it  is  kept  cool.  In  every  such 
room  there  should  be  a  thermometer,  and  the  tem- 
perature should  not  be  allowed  to  rise  above  68  or 
70  degrees. 

How  to  obtain  fresh  air.  Every  school  build- 
ing or  other  building  where  many  people  gather  to- 
gether ought  to  have  some  system  of  forcing  in 
fresh  air  and  drawing  off  the  air  that  has  been  used. 
Where  this  has  not  been  provided  for,  we  must  get 
as  much  fresh  air  as  possible  in  some  other  way. 
By  a  little  experimenting,  it  will  often  be  found 
that  certain  windows  in  a  room  can  be  opened 
without  causing  harmful  draughts  on  any  one.  Open- 
ing several  windows  a  little  is  usually  a  good  way 
to  ventilate  a  room.  A  common  method  is  to  set  a 


THE  AIR    WE  BREATHE 


49 


board  under  a  window  (as  shown  in  Figure  27) 
while  another  window  on  the  same  side  of  the  room 
is  lowered  from  the  top.  Often  by  lowering'  all  the 
windows  slightly  at  the  top  a  great  deal  of  the  hot, 
moist  air  in  a  crowded  room  can  be  got  rid  of  with- 
out causing  cold  draughts.  Schoolrooms  should  be 
filled  with  fresh  air  while  they  are  empty,  and  at 


FIG.  27.     How  a  fireplace  and  a  window  board  help  to  ventilate 
a  room.     The  arrows  show  which  way  the  air  is  moving. 

noons  and  recesses  the  windows  should  be  raised  and 
the  fresh  air  allowed  to  pour  in;  for  no  one  can  be 
expected  either  to  learn  his  lessons  or  to  keep  his 
health  in  a  room  that  is  stuffy  and  close  and  filled 
with  air  that  has  already  been  breathed. 

Ventilating  sleeping  rooms.  Sleeping  rooms  are 
harder  to  ventilate  than  living  rooms,  because  we 
are  all  the  while  moving  about  through  our 
living  rooms,  and  the  opening  and  closing  of  doors 

4 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


sets  the  air  in  motion.  We  spend  so  much  of  our 
time  in  sleeping  rooms,  however,  that  it  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  the  air  in  them  be  pure. 
Do  not  sleep  in  a  room  where  you  wake  with  a  stuffy 
feeling  in  the  morning,  but  open  the  windows,  or 
in  some  other  way  get  fresh  air  into  your  bedroom. 
Do  not  be  afraid  of  night  air,  for  long  ago  it  was 

proved  to  be  harmless.  A 
current  of  fresh  air  will  do 
no  harm  if  your  body  is 
warmly  covered,  or  if  you 
are  protected  from  a  direct 
draught  by  a  window  board 
or  a  screen. 

Outdoor  sleeping.  The 
best  place  of  all  to  sleep  is 
out  in  the  fresh  air,  where 
the  impure  air  that  comes 
FIG.  28.  The  best  kind  of  from  the  lungs  is  blown 
sleeping  room  is  out-of-doors,  away  so  that  it  cannot  be 

This  one  was  planned  when     -,         ^11-  •         TT        n 

the  house  was  built.    In  sum-    breathed  in  again.    Usually 

mer  it  is  screened  to  keep  out  an  upper  porch  is  the  best 
flies  and  mosquitoes,  and  in  lace  for  out(ioor  sleeping, 
winter  it  is  open  on  three  sides.  ,  ° 

and  houses  should  be  built 

with  porches  that  can  be  used  for  this  purpose.  In 
some  places  these  porches  need  to  be  screened  from 
flies  and  mosquitoes.  That  great  benefits  come  from 
outdoor  sleeping  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  persons 
who  are  sick  with  consumption  or  pneumonia  often 


THE  AIR    WE  BREATHE  51 

improve  when  they  begin  sleeping  in  the  open 
air. 

Methods  of  heating  and  ventilation.     Gas  and 

oil  heaters  that  have  no  pipes  for  carrying  away  the 
gases  give  off  great  volumes  of  impurities;  and  to 
heat  a  sleeping  room  with  one  of  these  stoves  is  un- 
healthful.  Stoves  and  furnaces  that  leak  coal  gas 
also  are  unhealthful.  Fireplaces  give  good  ventila- 
tion because  they  send  a  current  of  air  up  the  chim- 
ney, and  this  draws  more  air  into  the  room.  In  the 
same  way  a  stove  brings  a  little  air  into  the  room. 
Radiators  bring  no  new  air  into  a  building,  and  when 
a  system  of  heating  by  hot  water  or  steam  is  used, 
fresh  air  should  be  let  into  the  rooms  through  win- 
dows or  ventilators. 

Questions  :  i.  How  much  of  the  air  is  oxygen?  2.  Why 
must  the  body  get  rid  of  carbon  dioxid?  3.  What  are  the 
two  reasons  why  the  body  must  have  air?  4.  How  much 
air  do  you  breathe  in  a  day?  5.  Why  must  the  air  of  our 
rooms  be  constantly  changed?  6.  How  much  fresh  air 
does  a  person  need  every  hour?  7.  What  are  the  effects 
of  breathing  impure  air?  8.  What  is  the  most  probable 
cause  of  the  headaches  that  come  from  staying  in  a  crowded 
room?  9.  Tell  how  a  schoolroom  may  be  ventilated  with- 
out causing  draughts.  10.  What  may  be  done  at  recess  to 
change  the  air  in  a  room?  n.  Why  is  it  hard  to  ventilate 
sleeping  rooms?  12.  Why  is  it  important  that  they  be  well 
ventilated?  13.  What  is  the  best  of  all  sleeping  places? 
14.  How  is  this  proved?  15.  What  methods  of  heating 
bring  fresh  air  into  a  house? 


CHAPTER  ELEVEN 

THE  LUNGS  AND  AIR  PASSAGES  AND  THEIR  CARE 


•larynx 


FIG.  29.    The  lungs. 

OF  all  the  organs .  of  the  body,  the  lungs  and  air 
passages  are  most  frequently  attacked  by  disease 
germs.  Colds,  catarrh,  bronchitis,  and  grip  are  so 
common  that  no  one  entirely  escapes  them,  while 
pneumonia  and  consumption  kill  thousands  of  per- 
sons every  year.  Yet  every  person  can  do  much  to 
avoid  these  diseases  by  taking  a  reasonable  amount 

52 


THE  LUNGS  AND  AIR  PASSAGES  53 

of  care  of  his  breathing  organs  and  by  securing  for 
himself  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  We  have  learned 
some  ways  by  which  we  may  secure  pure  air;  now 
we  are  going  to  learn  how  to  care  for  the  organs  that 
get  rid  of  carbon  dioxid  and  take  in  oxygen  for  the 
body. 

The  air  passages.  The  air  enters  the  nose 
through  the  nostrils  and  passes  down  into  the  throat 
through  two  openings  at  the  back  of  the  mouth.  It 
then  goes  down  the  windpipe  (trachea),  which  di- 
vides and  enters  the  two  lungs.  These  large  branches 
of  the  trachea  divide  into  smaller  and  smaller 
branches,  as  a  tree  divides  into  small  limbs  and 
twigs,  and  these  smallest  branches  end  in  little  air 
sacs.  The  lungs  are  mainly  composed  of  millions  of 
these  little  tubes  and  the  air  sacs  at  their  ends.  The 
air  which  we  breathe  passes  down  the  windpipe  and 
out  through  the  tubes  into  every  one  of  these  sacs. 

The  blood  purified  in  the  lungs.  In  the  thin, 
delicate  walls  of  the  air  sacs  of  the  lungs  are  great 
numbers  of  very  small  blood  vessels.  As  the  blood 
passes  through  these  vessels  in  fine  little  streams, 
it  takes  up  oxygen  from  the  air  in  the  sacs  and 
gives  off  carbon  dioxid.  The  carbon  dioxid  is  then 
breathed  out  of  the  body,  and  when  the  next  breath 
is  taken  in,  more  oxygen  is  drawn  down  into  the 
lungs.  • 

The  danger  of  breathing  dust.  Most  of  the 
diseases  of  the  air  passages  and  lungs  are  germ 


54 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


diseases.  Dust  causes  these  diseases  by  carrying 
germs  into  the  air  passages,  and  also  by  wounding 
the  walls  of  the  air  pas- 
sages so  that  germs  al- 
ready in  them  may  get 
a  chance  to  start  grow- 
ing. More  than  one 
fourth  of  all  the  deaths 
among  the  cotton-mill 
workers  in  Rhode 
Island  from  1897  to 
1903  were  caused  by 
consumption;  and  in 
some  trades,  like  metal  FIG.  30.  Dust  should  be  wiped 

grinding  and  Stone  CUt-     from  furniture,  and  should  not  be 

ting,  more  than  one 
half  of  the  workers  die  of 
Facts  like  these  show  how  great  is  the  danger  of 
breathing  dust,  and  how  much  care  should  be  taken 
to  keep  it  from  getting  into  the  air  that  we  breathe. 
Keeping  down  dust.  The  streets  of  cities  and 
towns  should  be  kept  sprinkled,  and  where  it  is 
possible  to  do  so,  they  should  be  cleaned  by  flush- 
ing them  with  water  instead  of  by  sweeping  them. 
Sweeping  both  in  schoolrooms  and  in  private  houses 
ought  to  be  done  with  the  windows  open  and 
in  a  way  to  stir  up  as  little  dust  as  possible.  The 
best  way  of  all  to  do  this  is  with  a  vacuum  cleaner, 
which  makes  it  possible  to  get  rid  of  the  dust  more 


stirred  up  into  the  air. 

diseases  of  the  lungs. 


THE  LUNGS  AND  AIR  PASSAGES 


55 


completely  than  in  any  other  way.  Dust  on  furniture 
should  not  be  stirred  up  into  the  air,  but  should  be 
wiped  off  with  a  damp  cloth  (a  piece  of  flannel  soaked 
in  paraffin  oil  is  best  for  this  purpose).  Everything 
possible  should  be  done  to  keep  down  dust,  for  where 


FIGS.  31,  32,  and  33.    The  best  way  to  free  a  house  from  dust 
is  with  a  vacuum  cleaner. 

people  are  forced  to  breathe  it,  great  numbers  of  them 
die  from  diseases  of  the  air  passages  and  lungs. 

The  harmfulness  of  crowding  the  lungs. 
When  a  person  sits  at  his  desk  with  his  shoulders 
bent  over,  the  muscles  are  not  able  to  pull  the 
ribs  up  in  breathing,  as  they  could  do  if  he  were 
sitting  erect.  Also,  the  stomach  and  liver  push  up 
and  crowd  the  lungs  from  below.  This  causes  the 
lungs  to  be  only  partly  filled  with  fresh  air. 

The  lungs  can  also  be  crowded  by  tight  clothing 
about  the  chest,  which  keeps  the  ribs  from  moving 
freely;  or  by  tight  belts  or  other  tight  clothing 
about  the  waist,  which  force  the  liver  and  stomach 


5 6  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

upward  and  hinder  the  movements  of  the  lungs. 
Great  harm  can  be  done  to  the  lungs  by  crowding 
them  in  either  of  these  ways.  In  another  chapter 
(page  81)  we  shall  discuss  the  best  way  of  keeping 
the  body  erect. 

The  effect  of  tobacco  smoke  on  the  air  pas- 
sages and  lungs.    Tobacco  smoke  causes  the  lining 


FIGS.  34  and  35.  The  figure  on  the  left  shows  the  natural  po- 
sition of  the  bones  of  the  trunk.  The  figure  on  the  right  shows 
how  the  ribs  are  pressed  in  by  tight  clothing;  the  heart,  lungs, 
and  digestive  organs  are  then  cramped  and  injured. 

of  the  air  passages  to  become  inflamed,  and  a  con- 
siderable number  of  smokers  have  "smoker's  sore 
throat."  The  worst  effect  of  tobacco,  however, 
comes  from  taking  the  smoke  into  the  lungs,  as  cig- 
arette smokers  almost  always  do.  This  is  espe- 
cially injurious  to  the  body,  because  large  amounts 
of  the  poisonous  matter  in  the  tobacco  smoke  pass 
through  the  thin  walls  of  the  air  sacs  into  the  blood 


THE  LUNGS  AND  AIR  PASSAGES  tf 

and  are  carried  all  through  the  body.  Smoking  also 
causes  a  shortness  of  breath,  as  the  cigarette  smoker 
who  tries  to  win  a  race  very  well  knows. 

The  effect  of  alcohol  oa  the  lungs-  The  chief 
injury  to  the  lungs  and  air  passages  caused  by  alco- 
hol is  that  it  makes  them  more  easily  attacked  by 
germ  diseases.  It  has  long  been  known  by  physi- 
cians that  pneumonia  is  much  more  likely  to  kill  a 
user  of  alcohol  than  a  temperate  person,  and  that 
drinkers  suffer  far  more  from  consumption  than  do 
persons  who  use  no  alcohol.  Were  there  no  reason 
but  this  for  not  using  alcohol,  any  one  would  be  fool- 
ish to  drink  it;  for  pneumonia  and  consumption 
are  so  common  that  in  the  part  of  the  United  States 
where  a  record  is  kept  of  deaths,  one  person  in 
five  dies  from  one  or  the  other  of  these  diseases. 

Breathing  exercises.  You  should  stand  erect 
several  times  a  day  and  take  a  few  long,  deep 
breaths.  If  you  have  been  sitting  quietly  at  your 
work  for  some  time,  it  will  make  your  tired  muscles 
more  comfortable  to  stretch  the  arms  and  swing 
them  about.  A  half-dozen  breaths  of  cool,  fresh  air, 
taken  at  an  open  window,  will  do  wonders  toward 
waking  you  up  when  you  have  become  tired  and 
sleepy  at  your  work.  It  is  good  for  the  whole  body 
to  have  the  carbon  dioxid  emptied  out  of  the  lungs, 
a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen  taken  in,  and  the  heart 
made  to  send  the  blood  more  quickly  on  its  way. 
Vigorous  breathing  exercises  should  not  be  practiced 


58  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

by  persons  who  are  sick  or  weak,  however;  and  they 
are  very  injurious  to  consumptives.  No  one  should 
practice  breathing  exercises  long  enough  to  make 
himself  dizzy. 

Questions  :  i.  What  are  some  of  the  most  common  diseases 
of  the  organs  of  breathing?  2.  How  can  we,  to  some  ex- 
tent at  least,  avoid  these  diseases?  3.  How  does  air  get 
into  the  trachea?  4.  Of  what  are  the  lungs  principally 
made  up?  5.  How  does  the  air  get  into  the  air  sacs?  6. 
How  does  oxygen  get  into  the  blood?  7.  What  is  given  off 
in  exchange  for  oxygen?  8.  In  what  two  ways  may  ,dust 
cause  injury  to  the  air  passages  and  lungs?  9.  Name  some 
dusty  trades,  and  tell  how  you  know  that  it  is  dangerous  to 
breathe  dust.  10.  What  is  the  best  way  to  clean  the  streets 
of  a  town  or  city?  n.  How  should  a  room  be  swept?  12. 
What  are  the  effects  upon  the  lungs  of  a  stooping  position? 
13.  Why  is  this  injurious?  14.  How  should  clothing  and 
belts  be  made  to  fit?  15.  What  is  the  chief  harm  done  to 
the  organs  of  breathing  by  alcohol?  16.  What  proportion 
of  all  deaths  is  caused  by  pneumonia  and  consumption? 
17.  State  three  ways  in  which  the  habit  of  smoking  is  in- 
jurious. 1 8.  What  are  the  advantages  of  breathing  ex- 
ercises? 19.  What  persons  should  not  take  them? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Plain  furniture  and 
floors  finished  for  use  with  rugs  compared  from  a  hygienic  point 
of  view  with  carpeted  floors  and  plush-covered  furniture.  The 
cost  of  laying  a  hardwood  floor  over  another  floor  compared 
with  the  cost  of  an  equal  area  of  carpet.  How  your  school- 
room can  be  swept  without  raising  dust. 


CHAPTER  TWELVE 

ADENOIDS  AND   ENLARGED  TONSILS 


FIG.  36.  Children  with  adenoids.  Many  children  who  have 
adenoids  breathe  through  the  mouth  only  at  night  or  when  they 
have  a  cold. 

THERE  are  certain  troubles  of  the  nose  and  throat 
which  do  not  often  cause  either  sickness  or  pain,  but 
which  narrow  or  close  the  air  passages- and  keep  the 
person  from  getting  a  sufficient  supply  of  air.  These 
diseases  often  go  on  for  years  without  being  dis- 
covered, but  they  are  serious  and  should  be  promptly 
treated  when  found.  How  common  these  troubles 
are  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  415  villages  of  New 
York  State  it  was  found  that  nearly  one  eighth 
of  the  school  children  were  breathing  through  the 
mouth  instead  of  the  nose. 

The  evil  effect  of  breathing  through  the 
mouth.  Mouth  breathing  causes  the  upper  teeth 
to  turn  forward  and  the  lips  to  thicken  and  turn  out, 
thus  spoiling  the  appearance  .of  the  face.  What  is 
more  serious,  it  allows  millions  of  bacteria  to  get 

59 


6o 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


into  the  mouth,  and  it  allows  cold  and  dusty  air  to 
reach  the  throat  and  lungs.  Worst  of  all,  the  gen- 
eral health  of  the  mouth  breather  is  weakened. 

adenoids 


FIG.  37.     Adenoids  grow  high  in  the  throat  and  block  the 
openings  from  the  nose  into  the  throat. 

The  cause  of  mouth  breathing  is  usually  adenoid 
growths  or  enlarged  tonsils. 

Adenoids.  Examinations  have  shown  that  in 
moist  climates  as  many  as  one  sixth  of  all  the  chil- 
dren of  school  age  may  have  adenoids.  They 
are  soft,  spongy  bodies  that  grow  high  up  in  the 
throat  where  the  passages  from  the  nose  open  at 
the  back  into  the  throat  (Fig.  37).  They  partly 
or  entirely  stop  up  the  nose  so  that  the  person  must 
breathe  through  the  mouth,  and  they  are  often  the 
cause  of  deafness.  The  usual  symptoms  of  adenoids 


ADENOIDS  AND   ENLARGED   TONSILS         6l 

are  breathing  through  the  mouth,  a  narrow  upper 
jaw  and  crowded  teeth,  thick  lips  and  a  running 
nose,  difficulty  in  talking,  inflamed  eyes,  and  deaf- 
ness. In  most  cases  the  inner  corners  of  the  eyes 
are  drawn  down,  and  the  face  has  the  strained  ex- 
pression that  you  see  on  the  faces  of  the  children 
in  Figure  36.  Many  children  who  have  adenoid 
growths  are  smaller  than  they  ought  to  be,  some  of 
them  have  difficulty  in  keeping  up  with  their  classes, 
and  sometimes  adenoids  have  the  strange  effect 
of  causing  the  child  to  be  restless,  idle,  stupid, 
quarrelsome,  and  a  general  mischief-maker. 

Enlarged  tonsils.  The  tonsils  are  located  one 
on  each  side  of  the  throat.  Sometimes  they  be- 
come swollen  and  close  the  openings  that  lead 
down  from  the  back  of  the  nose  into  the  throat. 
This  condition  is  so  common  that  when  275,000 
children  in  the  New  York  City  schools  were  ex- 
amined, more  than  one  fourth  of  them  were  found 
to  have  enlarged  tonsils.  Such  a  condition  of  the 
tonsils  causes  mouth  breathing  and  the  germs  from 
them  are  a  continual  danger  to  the  voice,  the  lungs, 
and  the  digestive  organs. 

The  importance  of  treating  adenoids  and  en- 
larged tonsils.  Does  your  nose  become  stopped 
up  whenever  you  take  a  little  cold?  Do  the  other 
members  of  your  family  tell  you  that  you  sleep  with 
your  mouth  open  and  that  you  snore  in  your  sleep? 
Is  it  hard  for  you  to  keep  your  nose  clean?  Do  you 


62  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

talk  through  your  nose?  Are  you  troubled  with  ear- 
ache or  deafness?  Do  you  suffer  from  tonsillitis,  or  do 
you  have  any  other  of  the  symptoms  of  adenoids? 

If  you  are  troubled  in  any  of  these  ways,  ask 
your  parents  to  take  you  to  a  physician,  who,  by  a 
very  small  operation,  can  remove  the  cause  of 
your  troubles.  Do  not  allow  any  one  to  persuade 
you  to  wait  until  you  outgrow  adenoids;  for  while 
you  may  outgrow  the  adenoids  themselves,  the  ugly 
shape  of  the  mouth  and  lips,  the  narrow  air  passages 
in  the  nose,  and  the  deafness  that  the  adenoids  cause 
will  remain  through  life.  Besides,  you  can  no  more 
get  fresh  air  through  a  closed  nose  than  through  a 
closed  window,  and  it  is  almost  as  hard  to  grow  into 
a  strong,  healthy  man  or  woman  while  you  are 
struggling  for  air  as  it  would  be  to  do  so  without 
sufficient  food. 

Questions  :  i.  How  does  mouth  breathing  change  the 
shape  of  the  mouth?  2.  What  are  the  worst  effects  of 
mouth  breathing?  3.  To  what  is  mouth  breathing  usually 
due?  4.  What  are  adenoids  and  where  do  they  grow?  5. 
What  are  some  of  the  results  of  adenoids?  6.  Where  are 
the  tonsils?  7.  What  are  some  of  the  results  of  enlarged 
tonsils?  8.  Why  should  adenoids  or  enlarged  tonsils  be 
removed  as  soon  as  they  are  found?  9.  Is  it  reasonable  to 
wait  to  outgrow  such  troubles? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Watch  pupils  for 
symptoms  of  adenoids  and  enlarged  tonsils.  A  number  will  be 
found  with  these  troubles  if  the  teacher  will  learn  to  recognize  the 
symptoms. 


CHAPTER  THIRTEEN 

THE  BLOOD  AND  THE  HEART 


FIG.  38.     The  heart. 

SUPPOSE  that  in  a  great  city  all  the  wagons  that 
deliver  groceries  and  milk,  and  all  the  carts  that 
haul  away  rubbish  and  garbage,  should  stop  running. 
The  grocery  stores  might  have  abundant  supplies  of 
food,  but  the  food  could  not  be  taken  to  those  who 
needed  it,  and  there  would  be  suffering  and  starva- 
tion throughout  the  city.  The  garbage  cans  would 
become  filled  to  overflowing,  and  so  much  waste 

63 


64  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

matter  would  collect  that  disease  and  death  would 
be  caused  by  it.  The  very  life  of  the  city  depends 
on  having  some  way  of  carrying  food  to  every  part 
of  it  and  some  way  of  taking  away  the  wastes. 

Your  body  is  much  like  a  city.  Every  part  of  it 
must  have  food  and  oxygen  brought  to  it,  and  every 
part  must  have  its  wastes  carried  away,  or  it  cannot 
live.  We  are  now  to  study  how  this  work  is  done. 

The  blood.  The  blood  carries  everything  that 
is  to  be  moved  from  one  part  of  the  body  to  an- 
other. It  takes  up  the  food  which  soaks  through 
the  wall  of  the  intestine  and  the  oxygen  that  comes 
in  from  the  lungs.  It  carries  these  all  through  the 
body,  and  supplies  them  to  the  muscles  and  the 
brain  and  the  other  body  parts.  It  also  takes  up 
the  wastes  of  all  the  organs  and  brings  them  to  the 
lungs  and  kidneys,  where  they  are  thrown  out  of 
the  body.  To  do  this  work,  the  blood  must  travel 
swiftly  through  the  body  night  and  day  as  long  as 
the  body  is  alive. 

The  heart.  Place  your  hand  on  the  left  side  of 
your  chest  and  you  can  feel  your  heart  beat.  Count 
how  often  it  beats  in  a  minute.  As  the  heart  beats 
it  pumps  the  blood  through  the  body.  Day  after 
day  and  year  after  year  it  must  work  to  keep  the 
blood  flowing  through  the  body. 

The  blood  vessels.  The  blood  vessels  are  hollow 
tubes  or  pipes.  There  are  two  great  sets  of  them 
connected  with  the  heart  and  running  everywhere 


THE   BLOOD   AND    THE  HEART  65 

through  the  body.  One  set  is  called  the  arteries. 
They  carry  the  blood  out  from  the  heart  to  every 
part  of  the  body.  The  other  set  of  blood  vessels  is 
called  the  veins.  It  is  their  work  to  collect  the  blood 
from  all  parts  of  the  body  and  bring  it  back  to  the 


FIG.  39.     Long  races,  where  the  runners  suffer  from  exhaustion 
and  collapse,  are  too  severe  for  boys.     (After  McKenzie.} 

heart.  Near  the  heart  the  blood  vessels  are  very 
large,  but  through  all  the  body  there  are  thousands 
of  little  blood  vessels,  so  small  and  so  close  together 
that  you  cannot  run  the  point  of  the  finest  needle 
into  your  flesh  without  breaking  many  of  them. 

Violent  exercise  injurious  to  the  heart.  Run 
up  and  down  stairs  two  or  three  times,  or  run  a 
hundred  yards  as  fast  as  you  can.  Then  notice 
your  heart  and  you  will  find  that  it  is  beating  much 
harder  and  perhaps  twice  as  fast  as  it  beats  when 
you  are  sitting  quietly  in  your  seat.  From  this  you 


66  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

can  imagine  how  enormously  the  work  of  the  heart 
is  increased  in  Marathon  races,  hard  bicycle  riding, 
football,  rapid  and  long-continued  skipping  of  the 
rope,  or  hour  after  hour  of  tennis  playing.  When 
the  heart  is  overworked,  it  often  becomes  enlarged 
and  diseased,  and  this  condition  is  found  so  often 
among  those  who  engage  in  hard  games  and  sports 
that  it  is  called  "  athlete's  heart."  Young  persons 
are  especially  liable  to  have  their  hearts  injured  by 
very  severe  games  and  long  races.  They  should 
therefore  take  their  exercise  in  a  way  that  will  not 
put  too  great  a  strain  on  the  heart. 

The  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  heart.  Alcohol 
often  causes  the  heart  to  become  weakened;  and  in 
drinkers;  especially  beer  drinkers,  great  quantities 
of  fat  sometimes  gather  about  the  heart.  In  this 
condition  the  heart  cannot  do  its  work  properly; 
and  in  sicknesses  like  typhoid  fever  or  pneumonia, 
it  is  likely  to  fail.  Alcohol  often  causes  the  walls 
of  the  blood  vessels  to  become  hard  and  brittle. 
Strokes  of  paralysis  and  apoplexy  (which  are  caused 
by  the  bursting  of  a  blood  vessel  in  the  brain)  are 
far  more  common  among  drinkers  than  among 
those  who  do  not  use  alcohol. 

How  to  stop  bleeding  from  a  wound.  If  the 
blood  flows  from  a  wound  in  spurts,  the  cut  blood 
vessel  is  an  artery.  The  bleeding  can  be  stopped  by 
twisting  a  cord  or  a  knotted  handkerchief  above 
the  wound,  as  shown  in  Figure  40.  If  the  blood 


THE  BLOOD  AND   THE  HEART 


flows  in  a  steady  stream,  the  cut  vessel  is  a  vein;  in 

this  case  the  ^bandage  should  be  placed  below  the 

wound.     The  injured  part  of  the  body  should  be 

kept   raised.      If   the   cut 

vessel  is  a  large  one,  it  is 

necessary   to  act   very 

quickly,    and  some    one 

should  press  on  the  part 

to  stop  the  bleeding  until 

the  bandage  can  be  made 

ready.    If  the  wound  is  on 

the  head  or  body,  a  thick 

cloth    should    be    pressed 

firmly   down   upon  it.    A 

physician  should  be  called 

as  quickly  as  possible. 

Bleeding  from  the  nose.  Bleeding  from  the 
nose  may  often  be  stopped  by  simply  pressing 
the  upper  lip  against  the  teeth,  or  against  a  small 
ball  of  paper  or  some  other  object  placed  between 
the  teeth  and  the  lip.  Bathing  the  neck  in  cold 
water  may  also  help  to  check  the  bleeding.  The 
head  should  be  held  erect  in  nose  bleeding,  so 
that  as  little  blood  as  possible  will  run  to  the  nose. 
Do  not  blow  the  nose,  for  this  will  often  start  the 
bleeding  afresh. 

Questions  :  i.  In  what  ways  is  the  body  like  a  city?  2. 
What  does  the  blood  do  in  the  body?  3.  Where  is  the 
heart?  4.  How  often  does  your  heart  beat  in  a  minute? 


FIG.    40.     Checking    bleeding 
from  a  wound. 


68  PRIMER    OF  HYGIENE 

5.  Why  does  the  body  live  only  so  long  as  the  heart  beats? 

6.  What  are  the  two  sets  of  blood  vessels  called?    7.   What 
do  the  arteries  do?     8.   What  do  the  veins  do?     9.   What 
effect  has  exercise  upon  the  heart?     10.   Name  some  forms 
of  exercise  that  put  a  great  strain  on  the  heart,     n.   What 
effect  has  alcohol  on  the  heart?     12.   On  the  blood  vessels? 

13.  Tell  how  to  stop  bleeding  from  a  cut  in  the  arm  or  leg. 

14.  From  a  cut  in  the  body  or  head.     15.   From  the  nose. 


CHAPTER  FOURTEEN 


THE  KIDNEYS 

EXAMINE  the  .body  of  one  of  the  animals  that  hang 

in  a  meat  market  and  you  will  find  two  dark  red 

organs  fastened  to  the  back 

wall  of  the  body.    They  are 

bean-shaped,    and    lie   half 

buried  in  fat,  one  on  each 

side  of  the  backbone. 

What  are  these  organs? 
They  are  the  kidneys.  What 
do  they  do?  They  take 
wastes  out  of  the  blood. 
Is  their  work  important? 
Their  work  is  as  important 
as  the  work  of  any  other 
organ  of  the  body,  for  if  they 
fail  to  do  it  the  wastes  will 
poison  the  body  and  cause 

death.      We    Could  no  more     FIG.  41.  .  The    kidneys    and 

get  along  without  kidneys  the  bladder- 

than   we   could    get   along    without    our   digestive 
organs  or  our  lungs. 

How  the  kidneys  remove  the  body  wastes. 
A  large  blood  vessel  passes  into  each  kidney 
and  sends  branches  into  every  part  of  it.  As 
the  blood  passes  through  the  kidneys,  the  kid- 
neys purify  it  by  taking  the  wastes  out  of  it, 
just  as  the  lungs  purify  the  blood  by  taking  the 
carbon  dioxid  out  of  it.  The  wastes  from  the 

69 


70  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

kidneys  are  carried  to  the  bladder  by  a  duct  from 
each  kidney. 

Keeping  the  kidneys  in  health.  The  kidneys 
lie  deep  in  the  body,  and  we  can  best  keep  them  in 
health  by  caring  for  the  whole  body.  There  are, 
however,  some  things  that  should  be  avoided  if  pos- 
sible. Among  the  things  that  are  especially  likely 
to  injure  the  kidneys  may  be  mentioned  heavy 
lifting,  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  indigestion,  eat- 
ing too  much  meat,  and  especially  the  drinking  of 
alcohol,  which  is  by  far  the  most  common  cause  of 
kidney  trouble. 

Questions  :  i.  Where  are  the  kidneys  found  in  the  body? 
2.  What  is  their  function?  3.  Name  some  things  that 
injure  the  kidneys.  4.  What  effect  have  alcoholic  drinks 
on  the  kidneys? 


CHAPTER  FIFTEEN 

THE   SKIN 


FIG.  42.  Swimming  is  an  invigorating  way  to  take  a  bath.  It  is 
also  one  of  the  best  forms  of  exercise,  because  it  brings  into  play 
all  the  muscles  of  the  body.  (After  Sorolla's  "The  Swimmers,"  in 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art.} 

THE  living  parts  of  the  body  are  extremely  delicate 
and  tender,  and  if  they  were  exposed  to  hurts,  to 
drying,  and  to  disease  germs  they  could  not  live. 
We  therefore  have  over  the  whole  body  a  tough 
coat  which  protects  the  delicate  living  body  parts. 
The  inner  part  of  this  coat  is  alive,  but  the  part 
which  comes  in  contact  with  the  outside  world  is 
dead  and  keeps  falling  away  in  dry  scales. 

The  structure  of  the  skin.  The  skin  is  com- 
posed of  an  outer  layer  called  the  epidermis  and  an 
inner  layer  called  the  dermis.  The  epidermis  has  no 

71 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


bair 


epidermis 


blood  vessels  in  it,  but  its  inner  part  is  alive  and 
keeps  growing  to  take  the  place  of  the  outer  part 
that  is  all  the  time  dying  and  falling  away.  Every- 
where in  the  skin  are  little  sweat  glands  that  pour 
out  the  sweat  on  the  surface  of  the  skin. 

The  skin  a  regulator  of  the  body  heat.    The 
temperature  of  the  healthy  body,  winter  and  sum- 

mer, is  about  98.6  degrees. 
It  remains  the  same  be- 
cause the  skin  regulates  the 
heat  of  the  body.  This 
it  does  in  two  ways.  When 
we  are  hot,  the  blood-vessels 
in  the  skin  open  up  and 
allow  the  blood  to  come  to 
the  outside  of  the  body, 
where  it  can  be  cooled. 
When  we  are  cold,  the  ves- 
sels in  the  skin  close  up 
and  keep  the  blood  in  the 
warm  inner  parts  of  the 
body.  Another  way  in 
which  the  skin  regulates 
FIG.  43.  A  section  of  the  the  heat  is  through  the 

skin,  highly  magnified. 


dermis        sweat  gland 


in  cooling  the  body  by  pouring  out  water  on  the 
skin.  If  the  sweat  glands  fail  to  work,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body  goes  too  high  and  we  have 
fever. 


THE  SKIN  73 

Wet  the  hand  and  hold  it  up  to  the  wind.  Do 
you  feel  your  hand  being  cooled  as  the  water  evap- 
orates from  it?  Or  pour  alcohol  or  gasoline  over 
the  hand  and  allow  it  to  dry  off.  Do  you  feel  that 
your  hand  is. being  cooled?  Suppose  the  air  was  so 
moist  that  the  sweat  could  not  evaporate  from  the 
skin.  Would  it  cool  the  body  to  have  the  skin  wet 
with  sweat?  On  what  kind  of  day  do  we  suffer 
most  from  heat? 

The  hair.  The  hair  grows  from  the  epidermis, 
and  like  the  outer  layer  of  the  epidermis  the  hair  is 
dead.  It  contains  no  blood  vessels,  and  there  is  no 
sense  of  feeling  in  it.  The  growth  of  the  hair  is  at 
the  root.  The  hair  is  composed  of  the  same  ma- 
terial as  the  outer  layer  of  the  skin. 

Each  hair  stands  in  a  little  pocket  of  the  epidermis 
that  is  folded  down  deep  into  the  dermis.  Open- 
ing into  this  small  pocket  are  little  glands  that 
pour  out  oil  around  the  root  of  the  hair.  Brush 
your  hair  thoroughly  and  it  will  become  smooth 
and  glossy  from  the  oil  that  you  work  out  from 
around  the  roots.  Fine  hairs  are  found  all  over  the 
body,  and  the  oil  that  comes  from  the  glands  at 
the  roots  of  these  hairs  keeps  the  skin  from  becom- 
ing dry. 

The  care  of  the  hair.  In  the  care  of  the  hair 
nothing  is  so  important  as  thoroughly  brushing  it. 
This  brings  the  blood  into  the  scalp  and  spreads 
the  oil  along  the  hair.  The  hair  should  not  be  wet 


74 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


every  time  it  is  combed,  for  the  oil  will  be  washed 
off,  making  the  hair  too  dry.  The  head  should  be 
washed  occasionally  with  good  soap  to  cleanse  the 
hair  and  remove  scales  and  dirt  from  the  scalp. 
Dandruff  is  caused  by  germs  growing  in  the  oil 
glands  and  in  the  little  pockets  about  the  hairs. 
One  person  can  get  this  disease  from  another,  and 


FIGS.  44  and  45.     Well  kept  finger  nails  and  finger  nails  that  have 
been  bitten  off. 

for  this  reason  public  combs  and  brushes  should 
not  be  used. 

The  nails  and  their  care.  A  nail  is  a  portion 
of  the  outer  layer  of  the  epidermis  that  is  very  much 
thickened  and  hardened.  Its  growth  is  at  the  base. 
When  a  nail  is  lost  a  new  one  will  grow  in  its  place 
if  the  bed  on  which  the  nail  rests  is  not  destroyed; 
but  if  this  bed  has  been  destroyed,  the  nail  will  not 
grow  again. 

The  nails  should  not  be  bitten  off,  nor  should  they 
be  trimmed  "to  the  quick,"  for  this  will  spoil  their 


THE  SKIN 


75 


shape  and  their  appearance.  They  should  be  al- 
lowed to  grow  long  enough  to  protect  the  ends  of 
the  fingers,  and  the  space  beneath  the  ends  of  the 
nails  should  be  kept  free  from  dirt.  This  is  more 


FIG.  46.  Showing  the  necessary  sanitary  fixtures  of  a  modern 
bathroom.  Note  especially  the  tooth  basin,  the  use  of  which 
keeps  germs  from  the  mouth  from  getting  into  the  wash  basin. 

a  question  of  common  cleanliness  than  it  is  of  health; 
although  it  is  a  fact  that  bacteria  multiply  in  the 
dirt  under  the  finger  nails,  and  inflammation  some- 
times is  started  in  the  skin  by  scratching  with  dirty 
finger  nails. 

Bathing.  "  Tolerate  no  uncleanness  in  your 
body,  clothes,  or  habitation"  was  one  of  Benjamin 
Franklin's  rules  for  success,  and  few  men  have  un- 
derstood the  secrets  of  success  better  than  he.  Fin- 
ger nails  that  are  in  mourning,  greasy  hair,  soiled 


76  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

and  unbrushed  clothing,  unclean  teeth,  and  the 
lack  of  a  needed  bath  cause  a  person  to  be  disagree- 
able to  those  about  him.  Such  conditions  greatly 
hinder  usefulness  and  success. 

Cold  baths.  Those  who  take  a  daily  cold  bath 
do  not  catch  cold  so  easily  as  do  others,  and  many 
strong,  vigorous  persons  are  greatly  benefited  by 
this  practice.  Weak  and  sick  people,  however,  and 
especially  those  who  are  inclined  to  be  nervous, 
should  not  take  cold  baths  except  upon  the  advice 
of  a  physician.  The  safest  rule  to  follow  in  bathing 
is  to  use  lukewarm  water  unless  you  can  take  a 
cold  bath  with  pleasant  results. 

Questions:  i.  What  use  has  the  skin?  2.  Name  the 
layers  of  the  skin.  3.  What  do  the  sweat  glands  do?  4. 
What  is  the  temperature  of  the  healthy  body?  5.  Explain 
the  two  ways  of  regulating  the  heat  of  the  body.  6.  In 
what  does  a  hair  stand?  7.  Where  does  the  oil  for  the  hair 
come  from?  8.  Does  a  bird  have  oil  for  its  feathers?  9. 
Explain  how  brushing  benefits  the  hair.  10.  What  is  the 
cause  of  dandruff?  u.  How  can  a  person  catch  dandruff? 
12.  Why  is  it  important  to  keep  the  nails  clean?  1-3.  What 
was  Benjamin  Franklin's  rule  of  success  regarding  cleanli- 
ness? 14.  WThat  advantage  is  there  in  taking  cold  baths? 
15.  What  persons  need  to  be  careful  in  taking  cold  baths? 


CHAPTER  SIXTEEN 

CLOTHING 


FIGS.   47  and  48.    A  so-called  parlor  slipper  and  one  kind  of 
Chinese  shoe.     Is  either  of  them  a  sensible  shoe? 

CLOTHING  protects  the  body  from  injury  and  shields 
it  from  heat  and  cold  and  from  sun  and  rain.  Our 
personal  appearance  depends  to  a  great  extent  on 
the  clothing  that  we  wear,  and  it  is  right  that  we 
should  try  to  have  our  clothing  as  neat  and  as  be- 
coming to  us  as  is  possible.  We  should  not  forget, 
however,  that  the  real  use  of  clothing  is  to  protect 
the  body;  that  if  we  wear  clothes  that  are  uncom- 
fortable and  unsuited  to  the  weather  merely  because 
they  are  pretty,  we  are  as  foolish  as  we  should  be  if 
we  tried  .to  live  on  peaches  because  they  are  more 
beautiful  than  bread  and  meat. 

Clothing  in  cold  weather.  Clothing  protects 
us  from  cold  by  keeping  the  heat  of  the  body  from 
passing  off  into  the  air.  Only  enough  clothing 
should  be  worn  to  keep  the  body  warm,  because 
heavy  clothing  overheats  the  body  and  interferes 
with  the  breathing  and  the  movement  of  the  blood. 

77 


78  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

Overcoats  and  wraps  should  be  worn  in  cold  weather, 
but  they  should  be  taken  off  when  we  come  indoors. 
If  this  is  not  done,  the  body  will  become  too  hot, 
the  blood  will  come  out  into  the  skin,  and  the  sweat 
glands  will  begin  working.  Then,  on  going  out  into 
the  cold,  the  body  is  too  suddenly  cooled  and  there 
is  danger  of  taking  cold. 

Wet  clothing  and  wet  feet.  Wet  clothing  takes 
the  heat  out  of  the  body,  and  we  should  not  allow 
the  body  to  be  chilled  by  letting  clothing  dry  on 
it.  Since  getting  the  feet  wet  is  probably  the  most 
common  cause  of  colds,  wet  shoes  and  stockings 
should  be  changed  for  dry  ones  as  quickly  as  possible. 

Three  habits  that  will  be  of  great  value  in  saving 
you  from  colds  and  other  diseases  of  the  air  passages 
and  lungs  are  wearing  overshoes  when  your  feet  will 
become  damp  without  them,  carrying  an  umbrella 
when  there  is  danger  of  rain,  and  wearing  an  over- 
coat or  wrap  when  you  need  it. 

Changing  clothing  with  the  changes  of  the 
weather.  The  Chinese  seem  to  us  to  be  a  strange 
people,  but  when  we  examine  into  their  customs  we 
find  that  there  is  often  much  common-sense  in  the 
Chinese  way  of  doing  things.  These  shrewd  people 
speak  of  the  weather  as  one  shirt  weather,  two  shirt 
weather,  three  shirt  weather,  or  four  or  five  shirt 
weather,  according  as  the  weather  is  hot  or  cold. 
This  means  that  on  a  hot  day  a  Chinaman  puts 
on  one  thin  shirt,  and  the  cooler  the  weather  the 
more  shirts  he  puts  on. 


CLOTHING 


79 


FIGS.  49  and  50.    What  trouble  will 
the  shoe  at  the  right  cause? 


We  can  learn  a  great  deal  from  the  Chinese  about 
wearing  clothing  that  is  suited  to  the  weather.  An 
extra  undershirt  on  cool  days  in  the  spring  and  fall 
and  on  very  cold 
winter  days  would 
save  many  of  us  from 
colds  or  more  serious 
sickness.  Wearing 
cool,  sensible  cloth- 
ing in  the  summer, 
instead  of  heavy 
woolen  garments, 
would  prevent  much 
of  the  suffering  and 
sickness  and  many  of  the  prostrations  that  come 
from  the  heat. 

A  little  baby  should  be  thinly  dressed  on  a  hot 
day  and  warmly  dressed  in  cold  weather,  and  its 
clothing  should  have  especial  attention  during 
changeable  weather  and  on  cool  nights.  Trying  to 
harden  children  by  having  them  go  barefooted  or 
with  little  clothing  in  cold  weather  is  a  mistake. 

Questions  :  i.  What  are  the  uses  of  clothing?  2.  When 
should  overcoats  and  wraps  be  worn?  3.  Why  should  they 
be  removed  when  we  are  indoors?  4.  WTiy  is  wet  clothing 
injurious  to  the  body?  5.  Mention  three  habits  that  would 
help  to  save  us  from  colds  and  other  sickness.  6.  How  do 
the  Chinese  describe  the  weather?  7.  What  may  we  learn 
from  the  Chinese  about  properly  clothing  ourselves? 


80  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


FIG.  51.     The  muscles. 


CHAPTER  SEVENTEEN 

THE  CARRIAGE  OF  THE  BODY 

"STAND  up  and  be  a  man!"  A  wise  old  teacher 
often  said  this  to  the  boys  of  his  school.  It  is  good 
advice,  for  an  erect  carriage 
of  the  body  does  much  to 
make  and  keep  one  strong. 
It  gives  the  heart  and  the 
lungs  room  to  do  their 
work,  and  it  allows  the  life- 
giving  blood  to  flow  freely 
through  all  the  body.  No 
one  who  allows  himself  to 
stoop  so  that  his  lungs  and 
heart  are  crowded  together 
can  be  strong.  One  should 
"stand  up  and  be  a  man" 
if  he  wishes  to  have  a 
healthy  body. 

The  skeleton.  The 
skeleton  forms  the  frame- 
work of  the  body.  The 
backbone,  or  spinal  col- 
umn, runs  up  the  back  and 
carries  the  head  on  its  top. 
From  the  spinal  column  the  ribs  and  the  shoulders 
are  hung.  The  weight  of  all  the  upper  part  of 
the  body  falls  on  the  spinal  column,  and  if  this 
part  of  the  skeleton  bends,  the  whole  body  will  be 
stooped. 

81 


FIGS.  52  and  53.  If  the  spinal 
column  is  allowed  to  droop  the 
body  is  stooped.  If  the  spinal 
column  is  straightened  out  the 
body  is  held  erect.  (After 
McKcnzie.) 


82 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


The  muscles.  The  muscles  are  stretched  on 
the  framework  of  the  body.  Their  work  is  to  move 
the  body.  Lay  your  hand  on  your  arm  above  the 

elbow  and  bend  the  arm. 
You  feel  a  muscle  draw- 
ing itself  together  to  pull 
up  your  forearm.  Put  your 
hand  to  your  cheek  while 
you  close  your  teeth,  and 
you  feel  the  movements 
of  the  muscle  that  closes 
the  jaws.  All  over  the 
body  we  have  masses  of 
strong  muscles  that  slide 
smoothly  and  noiselessly 
over  each  other  and  move 
the  different  parts  of  the 
body. 

How  the  body  is  held 
erect  by  the  muscles  of 
the  spinal  column.  The 


FIG.  54.   Point  out  the  muscles 
that  support  the  spinal  column. 


body  is  held  erect  by  great  muscles  that  lie  along 
the  back  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  column.  The 
spinal  column  is  held  up  if  these  muscles  do  their 
work  properly,  but  if  they  are  weak  the  spinal 
column  bends  forward,  the  head  droops,  and  the 
ribs  drop  down  and  crowd  the  heart  and  lungs. 
No  one  can  straighten  himself  by  pushing  his  shoul- 
ders back,  for  the  shoulders  are  supported  by  the 


THE   CARRIAGE   OF  THE  BODY 


spinal  column  just  as  the   ears  are  supported  by 
the   head.     The   body  can   be  straightened   only   by 


FIGS.  55,  56,  and  57.  Standing  in  the  first  position  and  throwing 
all  the  weight  of  the  body  on  one  leg  twists  the  spinal  column. 
Standing  with  the  feet  even,  or  with  one  foot  only  slightly  in  ad- 
vance of  the  other,  keeps  the  spinal  column  straight.  (After  Mosher.} 

tightening  up  the  muscles  along  the  back  and  straighten- 
ing the  spinal  column. 

How  to  secure  a  correct  carriage  of  the  body. 
Stand  and  walk  with  the  top  of  your  head  pushed 
up  as  high  as  possible.  This  straightens  out 
the  spinal  column.  Pull  your  chin  in  and  push 
the  back  of  your  neck  against  your  collar.  Draw 
in  your  abdomen  and  do  not  allow  your  back  to 


84  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

bend  forward  at  the  waist.  Exercise  helps  to  de- 
velop the  muscles  that  hold  up  the  body,  but  no 
amount  of  exercise  can  give  one  an  erect  carriage. 
The  best  way  to  straighten  up  is  to  do  it. 

The  importance  of  holding  the  body  erect 
in  youth.  The  bones  of  a  little  child  are  easily 
bent,  and  by  beginning  in  time  they  may  be  made  to 
take  almost  any  form,  without  causing  much  pain 
to  the  child.  As  a  person  grows  older,  the  bones 
harden,  and  it  is  then  impossible  to  change  their 
shape.  If  you  want  to  have  a  straight,  beautiful 
body,  you  cannot  put  off  beginning  to  hold  yourself 
erect.  The  grown  man  or  woman  whose  bones  have 
hardened  in  a  stooped  position  can  never  straighten 
up,  but  must  go  through  life  with  cramped  heart 
and  lungs.  "Stand  up  and  be  a  man!" 

Questions:  i.  How  does  an  erect  carriage  help  the  body 
organs  to  do  their  work?  2.  What  is  the  function  of  the 
spinal  column?  3.  What  is  the  work  of  the  muscles  ? 
4.  How  is  the  body  held  erect?  5.  State  three  things  that 
must  be  done  in  order  to  have  a  correct  carriage.  6.  Why 
is  it  important  that  children  learn  to  carry  the  body 
properly? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Watch  the  pupils  for 
faulty  postures  and  privately  advise  with  them  as  to  the  best 
methods  of  correction.  Pay  special  attention  to  the  curve  of  the 
spinal  column  and  the  relative  height  of  the  shoulders.  See  that 
each  pupil  has  a  seat  and  a  desk  of  the  proper  height,  providing 
footrests  for  the  smallest  children  if  necessary.  Have  the  pupils 
trace  the  curve  of  the  spinal  column  in  Figure  59. 


THE   CARRIAGE   OF  7 HE  BODY 


FIG.  58. 


FIG.  59. 


FIG.  60.  FIG.  6 1. 

In  Figure  58  the  seat  and  desk  are  of  such  a  height  that  the  feet  rest 
squarely  on  the  floor,  the  body  is  held  easily  erect,  and  the  shoul- 
ders are  even.  In  Figure  59  the  desk  is  too  high  and  too  far  away 
from  the  seat.  In  Figure  60  the  desk  is  too  high,  causing  lateral 
curvature  of  the  spine  and  uneven  height  of  the  shoulders.  Figure  61 
shows  the  bending  over  caused  by  too  low  a  desk.  {After  Shaw.} 


CHAPTER  EIGHTEEN 

EXERCISE 


FIG.  62.  Outdoor  games  furnish  the  best  exercise  because  they 
bring  into  use  all  the  muscles  of  the  body,  they  take  the  mind  off 
its  tasks,  and  they  keep  us  out  in  the  fresh  air. 

EXERCISE  makes  the  muscles  strong,  it  quickens 
the  flow  of  the  blood,  it  improves  the  digestion, 
and  it  builds  up  the  general  health.  Like  food,  it 
is  good  for  us  and  ought  to  be  taken  every  day. 
Yet,  as  we  can  injure  ourselves  by  eating  more  food 
than  we  can  digest,  so  we  can  injure  the  body  by 
taking  too  much  or  too  violent  exercise  or  by  tak- 
ing it  at  the  wrong  time.  In  this  chapter  we  shall 
study  how  to  take  exercise  so  that  we  shall  get  the 
most  good  from  it. 

The  open  air  the  best  place  to  exercise. 
The  best  place  to  exercise  is  in  the  open  air.  Then 
we  get  not  only  the  benefits  that  come  from  the  ex- 
ercise but  also  the  benefits  that  come  from  staying 
in  the  open  air.  In  cities  this  is  an  especially  im- 

86 


EXERCISE  87 

portant  point,  and  many  cities  are  now  providing 
open-air  playgrounds  for  the  children  of  their  crowded 
sections.  If  you  live  near  such  a  playground,  go  to 
it  as  often  as  you  can  and  take  your  little  brothers 
and  sisters  with  you,  for  outdoor  play  makes  strong 
muscles,  healthy  lungs,  rich  blood,  and  an  active 
brain. 

Exercise  and  the  digestion.  Nearly  every- 
body who  neglects  to  take  exercise  suffers  from 
indigestion.  You  might  as  well  understand  this, 
for  if  you  become  too*  lazy  or  careless  to  exercise 
your  muscles  you  can  look  forward  to  trouble  with 
your  stomach.  On  the  other  hand,  you  ought  not 
to  exercise  hard  immediately  before  eating,  and 
you  should  rest  a  while  after  eating,  or  the  diges- 
tive organs  will  not  get  the  blood  they  ought  to 
have  while  they  are  forming  the  digestive  juices. 
When  a  boy  is  hot  and  tired,  his  blood  is  in  the  skin, 
and  when  he  is  running  and  playing,  it  goes  to  his 
muscles  and  not  to  the  organs  that  are  digesting 
the  food. 

Some  rules  in  regard  to  exercise.  Exercise 
ought  to  be  taken  regularly.  A  reasonable  amount 
every  day  is  far  better  than  a  large  amount  one  day 
and  none  the  next.  Proper  exercise  brings  into  use 
and  builds  up  all  the  muscles.  It  does  not  make 
giants  of  a  few  muscles  and  leave  the  others  small 
and  weak.  Outdoor  games  are  best  of  all  for  de- 
veloping the  whole  body.  One  should  not  allow 


88 


PRIMER    OF  HYGIENE 


himself  to  cool  of  too  quickly  after  exercising,  as  there 
is  then  danger  of  taking  cold.  Do  not  sit  down 
without  a  coat  or  wrap  when  you  are  hot  and  tired, 
but  walk  about  until  you  have  become  cool. 

Over-exercising.  In  a  former  chapter  (page 
65)  we  have  spoken  of  the  danger  of  injuring  the 
heart  by  too  violent  and  long-continued  exercise. 


FIG.  63.  Children  exercising  in  a  schoolroom.  Even  in  a  crowded 
room,  and  without  any  apparatus,  very  beneficial  exercises  can  be 
given.  (After  McKenzie.) 

Such  exercise  is  not  good  for  any  part  of  the  body. 
Do  not  play  tennis  all  day.  Do  not  run  after  and 
kick  a  football  all  afternoon.  Do  not  ride  a  bicycle 
too  hard.  Do  not  play  baseball  or  exercise  in  a  gym- 
nasium until  you  are  so  tired  that  you  still  feel  it 
the  next  morning.  Be  moderate  and  sensible  in  your 
exercise  as  in  everything  else,  and  remember  that  if 
you  exercise  until  you  are  so  exhausted  that  you  can- 
not quickly  rest  afterwards  you  have  gone  too  far. 

Exercise    in   the    schoolroom.     After  one  has 
been  sitting  quietly  at  a  desk  for  an  hour  or  two, 


EXERCISE  89 

the  breathing  is  shallow,  the  muscles  are  tired  from 
remaining  a  long  time  in  one  position,  the  heart- 
beat is  slow,  and  the  brain  is  beginning  to  tire.  A 
person  in  this  condition  feels  sleepy  and  dull,  and 
he  can  learn  little  by  sitting  and  looking  at  his  book. 
If,  however,  he  will  stand  up  and  spend  a  few  min- 
utes in  stretching  and  breathing  exercises,  he  will 
find  himself  feeling  much  better.  The  breathing 
will  become  deeper,  the  heart  will  beat  more  rapidly 
and  with  more  force,  and  the  tired  muscles  will  feel 
rested.  The  brain  and  the  body  are  "waked  up/7 
and  the  person  can  go  back  to  work,  feeling  greatly 
freshened  and  rested.  Several  times  a  day  every  one 
in  a  schoolroom  should  spend  a  little  time  in  such 
exercises  as  are  described  in  Chapter  Twenty- six. 
While  this  is  being  done,  all  the  windows  should  be 
thrown  wide  open  and  the  fresh  outside  air  allowed 
to  fill  the  room. 

Questions  :  i.  What  are  some  of  the  benefits  of  exercis- 
ing? 2.  What  is  the  best  place  to  take  exercise?  3.  Why 
should  those  who  live  in  cities  make  use  of  the  parks  and 
open-air  playgrounds?  4.  Why  is  it  unwise  to  exercise 
immediately  before  or  after  a  meal?  5.  Give  three  good 
rules  in  regard  to  exercise.  6.  In  what  games  or  sports  do 
the  players  sometimes  injure  themselves  by  too  much  ex- 
ercise? 7.  What  is  the  best  way  to  rest  after  you  have 
become  tired  of  study? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  The  exercise  that 
pupils  take  during  play  hours.  The  wisdom  of  supplying  school 
and  municipal  playgrounds. 


CHAPTER  NINETEEN 

THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 

IF  an  army  had  no  officers,  and  each  soldier  marched 
as  he  pleased  and  camped  where  he  pleased,  we 
should  not  call  it  an  army  at  all,  but  a  mob;  and 
if  the  whole  army  attacked  the  enemy  without  plan 
or  purpose,  each  man  fighting  in  his  own  way,  we 
should  not  expect  it  to  win  many  victories.  If  an 
army  is  to  stand  before  an  enemy,  it  must  have  a 
general  over  it  who  will  keep  all  its  parts  working 
together. 

The  human  body  is  composed  of  many  organs, 
and  as  all  the  parts  of  an  army  must  be  made  to 
work  together,  so  must  all  the  organs  of  the  body 
be  made  to  work  together.  Over  all  the  body, 
therefore,  a  ruler  has  been  set  to  govern  the  organs 
and  to  make  them  do  their  work  when  it  needs 
to  be  done.  This  ruler  is  the  nervous  system.  It 
is  made  up  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and  of 
the  nerves,  which  run  out  from  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

The  brain  and  the  spinal  cord.  The  center  of 
the  nervous  system  is  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord. 
The  brain  is  enclosed  by  the  cranium  or  bones  of 
the  head.  The  spinal  cord  lies  in  a  canal  in  the 
spinal  column.  The  brain  and  the  cord  are  very 
soft  and  delicate,  and  they  are  protected  by  the 
strong  bones  about  them. 

Nerves  and  their  work.     From  the  brain  and 

spinal  cord  the  nerves  run  out  and  branch  until 

9o 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


91 


brain 
spinal  cord 


nerves 


FIG.  64.     The  nervous  system.     From  the  brain  and  spinal  cord, 
nerves  run  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 


92  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

they  reach  every  muscle  and  the  smallest  parts  of 
every  organ.  The  work  of  the  nerves  is  to  carry  mes- 
sages between  the  brain  and  the  other  parts  of  the  body. 
If  you  stick  a  pin  into  your  finger,  some  of  the  thou- 
sands of  nerves  that  end  in  the  skin  take  a  message 
to  the  brain.  You  then  know  that  the  finger  was 
hurt.  If  you  wish  to  lift  your  hand,  your  brain 
sends  a  message  down  the  nerves  to  the  muscles  of 
your  arm  and  causes  them  to  move  the  hand.  So 
whenever  we  hear,  see,  taste,  smell,  or  feel,  or  when- 
ever we  move,  we  do  so  because  the  nerves  carry 
messages  either  to  or  from  the  brain. 

The  work  of  the  brain.  The  brain  is  the  great 
center  of  the  nervous  system.  It  governs  the  heart 
and  lungs.  It  gives  us  power  to  move  when  we 
wish  to  do  so.  It  makes  us  able  to  see  and  to  hear, 
to  think  and  to  feel,  to  know  and  to  understand. 
Without  the  brain  we  should  have  no  knowledge  of 
where  our  hands  and  feet  are,  we  could  feel  neither 
heat  nor  cold,  and  we  should  always  remain  in  one 
place  as  does  a  tree.  The  mind  of  man  has  made 
him  the  ruler  of  the  world,  but  without  the  brain 
the  mind  would  be  gone.  There  would  then  be  no 
joy  or  love  or  knowledge  in  us,  and  our  whole  ex- 
istence would  be  like  the  existence  of  a  stone. 

Questions  :  i.  Why  must  the  body  have  a  ruler  to  govern 
it?  2.  What  is  the  ruler  of  the  body  called?  3.  Name 
the  chief  parts  of  the  nervous  system.  4.  Where  is  the 
brain?  5.  Where  is  the  spinal  cord?  6.  How  are  the  brain 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  93 

and  spinal  cord  protected?  7.  What  is  the  work  of  the 
nerves?  8.  Explain  what  happens  in  the  nerves  when  you 
stick  a  pin  int6  your  finger.  9.  When  you  wish  to  move  a 
part  of  the  body.  10.  Explain  the  work  of  the  brain,  n. 
What  would  life  be  like  without  a  brain? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  The  resemblance 
of  the  nervous  system  to  a  telephone  system.  Make  clear  the  fact 
that  the  brain  is  nourished  in  the  same  way  as  the  other  parts  of 
the  body,  and  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  brain  food. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY 

THE  CARE   OF  THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM 


FIGS.  65,  66,  and  67. 


Rest  and  quiet  recreation  build  up  tired 
nervous  systems. 


THE  nervous  system  is  the  ruler  of  all  the  body, 
and  if  it  is  not  kept  in  health  the  whole  body  must 
suffer.  To  keep  it  in  health  requires  good  food, 
pure  air,  exercise,  freedom  from  germ  diseases,  —  all 
the  things  that  are  needed  by  the  rest  of  the  body. 
There  are  also  a  few  special  points  in  regard  to  the 
care  of  the  nervous  system  that  it  is  well  to  know. 
In  this  chapter  we  shall  discuss  the 'need  for  rest 
and  sleep,  and  the  injury  that  comes  to  the  nervous 
system  from  suffering  pain. 

The  necessity  for  rest.  No  people  have  ever 
worked  as  the  American  people  are  now  working. 
As  a  people,  we  hurry  on  from  day  to  day,  scarcely 
taking  time  to  eat  in  a  healthful  manner.  Even  our 
play  and  our  amusements  are  full  of  nervousness 
and  excitement,  and  many .  of  our  people  hardly 
know  what  an  hour  of  quiet,  -peaceful  rest  is. 

This  kind  of  life  is  not  healthful  either  for  the 
body  or  for  the  mind,  and  while  you  are  still  in  your 

94 


THE   CARE   OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM       95 

youth  you  should  form  the  habit  of  resting.  When 
you  become  tired  at  your  play,  lie  down  and  rest. 
If  you  have  a  hard  task  and  feel  wearied  after  you 
have  performed  it,  do  not  hurry  off  to  play,  but 
give  your  body  the  rest  it  needs.  If  you  have  a 
hard  lesson,  put  your  mind  on  it  and  study  while 
you  are  at  it;  but  if  you  find  that  your  mind  is  tired 
and  you  are  only  looking  at  your  book,  stop)  and 


T 


FIGS.  68  and  69.  A  proper  and  an  improper  position  for  sleeping. 
Too  high  a  pillow  bends  the  spinal  column  to  the  side,  interferes 
with  the  breathing,  and  disturbs  the  sleep. 

rest.  Get  up  and  open  the  window  and  take  a 
breathing  exercise,  while  you  think  of  something  else. 
Endeavor  to  keep  yourself  calm  and  quiet,  avoid 
fits  of  anger  or  great  excitement,  and  do  not  overdo 
at  your  play  or  at  your  work.  Learn  that  peace  and 
quietness  are  as  much  a  part  of  a  healthful,  useful 
life  as  the  bustle  and  excitement  in  which  some 
people  always  live.  Learn  to  rest,  and  you  will 
have  learned  something  that  will  do  much  toward 
keeping  your  nervous  system  in  health. 

The  necessity  for  sleep.     The  nervous  system 
needs  something  that  the  rest  of  the  body  does  not 


96 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


require,  and  that  is  sleep.  Without  sleep  we  cannot 
remain  in  health.  Young  babies  sleep  nearly  all 
the  time,  and  the  twelve  or  fourteen-year  old  boy  or 
girl  ought  to  have  nine  or  ten  hours  of  sleep  every 
night.  If  you  are  sleepy  at  getting  up  time,  go  to 
bed  earlier.  There  is  no  truth  in  the  idea  that  a 
healthy  person  can  have  too  much  sleep;  but  it  is 
true  that  in  no  way  can  you  more 
surely  wreck  your  nervous  system 
than  by  depriving  yourself  of  the 
sleep  that  you  ought  to  have. 

In  this  connection  it  is  of  interest 
to  know  that  many  people  who  have 
tried  sleeping  outdoors  find  that 
they  need  about  an  hour  less  sleep 
each  night  when  they  sleep  in  the 
open  air  than  when  they  sleep  in- 
doors. The  nervous  system  is  built 
up  and  restored  more  quickly  when 
we  breathe  pure  air  than  when  we  breathe  impure 
air.  So  move  your  bed  out  on  an  upper  porch,  or 
make  sure  that  you  have  plenty  of  fresh  air  in  your 
room  at  night. 

Pain.  The  suffering  of  pain  has  a  very  bad  effect 
on  the  nervous  system.  Ill  health  and  disease  bring 
on  old  age  faster  than  the  passing  of  the  years,  and 
one  reason  why  sickness  so  often  leaves  the  body 
weakened  and  aged  is  that  the  nervous  system  has 
been  wrecked  by  the  pain  that  it  has  borne.  A 


FIG.  70.  The  pain 
caused  by  tooth- 
ache is  a  great 
drain  on  the  ner- 
vous system. 


THE   CARE   OF   THE   NERVOUS  SYSTEM        9/ 

week  of  toothache  or  of  earache  is  a  great  drain  on 
the  nervous  system.  A  corn  that  is  continually 
causing  pain  can  do  as  much  to  wear  out  your 
nervous  system  as  an  hour's  extra  work  each  day. 
Sometimes  we  learn  to  pay  little  attention  to  a  dull 
pain  and  allow  it  to  go  on  from  week  to  week,  but  it 
is  not  right  to  do  this.  Pain  is  nature's  danger  signal ; 
it  is  a  call  for  help  from  some  part  of  the  body. 
Your  nervous  system  can  no  more  rest  when  these 
calls  are  coming  to  it  nigh$and  day,  than  you  could 
rest  with  the  screams  of  some  one  who  is  calling  for 
help  constantly  coming  to  your  ears. 

Have  you  toothache?  Have  you  earache?  Have 
you  headaches?  Do  your  eyes  pain  you?  Do  your 
feet  hurt  you?  Have  you  pain  in  any  other  part  of 
the  body?  If  so,  ask  your  parents  to  take  you  to  a 
dentist  or  to  a  physician.  For  you  ought  to  get  up 
in  the  morning  feeling  fresh  and  rested;  and  you 
ought  to  go  to  bed,  tired  and  sleepy  perhaps,  but 
free  from  pain. 

Questions  :  i.  Mention  three  points  that  are  important 
in  the  care  of  the  nervous  system.  2.  Does  a  person  who 
works  quietly  and  rests  when  he  needs  it  do  any  less  work 
than  the  person  who  is  hurrying  all  the  time?  3.  How 
many  hours  of  sleep  ought  you  to  have?  4.  How  may  a 
person  know  if  he  is  getting  enough  sleep?  5.  What  should 
be  done  by  a  person  who  continues  to  suffer  pain?  6.  Why? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  How  a  vacation  may 
best  be  spent  to  fit  one  for  another  year's  work. 

7 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-ONE 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  HABIT 


FIGS.  71,  72,  and  73.  Keeping  the  teeth  clean,  breathing  pure  air, 
and  going  to  bed  regularly  at  an  early  hour  are  three  habits  that 
have  much  to  do  with  keeping  us  in  health. 

WHEN  the  nervous  systeln  has  done  a  thing  once,  it 
does  it  the  second  time  more  easily.  When  one  has 
performed  an  act  a  great  number  of  times,  one's 
nervous  system  becomes  so  trained  that  it  carries 
out  the  act  easily  and  quickly  and  often  without 
thought.  When  the  nervous  system  becomes  trained 
in  this  way,  we  say  that  we  have  formed  a  habit. 

Just  what  happens  in  the  nervous  system  when 
a  habit  is  formed  no  one  knows.  But  we  do  know 
that  in  the  movements  of  the  muscles,  in  the  train- 
ing of  the  mind,  and  in  the  building  of  the  charac- 
ter, nothing  has  so  great  an  influence  as  the  habits 
we  have  formed. 

Habits  and  health.  It  is  not  single  acts,  but 
habits,  that  destroy  the  health.  It  is  not  single  acts, 
but  habits,  that  build  up  the  health. 

98 


THE  IMPORTANCE   OF  HABIT  99 

You  will  not  become  stooped  by  bending  over  a 
desk  one  day,  nor  will  you  become  straight  by  hold- 
ing yourself  erect  some  one  time  when  you  are 
walking  down  the  street.  Eating  your  dinner  hur- 
riedly one  day  and  rushing  back  to  school  will  not 
cause  dyspepsia,  nor  will  taking  time  to  eat  a  few 
meals  slowly  cure  it.  The  teeth  decay,  not  because 
we  leave  them  uncleaned  for  one  day,  but  because 
we  make,  a  habit  of  leaving  them  uncleaned.  The 
nervous  system  is  injured,  not  by  staying  up  late  one 
evening,  but  by  the  habit  of  staying  up  late.  The 
race  for  health  is  a  long  one,  and  it -is  not  the  short 
excited  dash,  but  the  patient  plodding  onward  in  the 
right  course,  that  wins  it.  Habits  and  not  acts  are 
the  important  things  in  keeping  the  body  in 
health. 

Seven  hygienic  habits  that  you  ought  to  form. 

1.  Keep  your  teeth  clean. 

2.  Eat  moderately  and  chew  your  food  thoroughly. 

3.  Breathe  pure  air  whenever  it  is  possible  to  do  so. 

4.  Go  to  bed  regularly  at  a  reasonable  hour. 

5.  Take  proper  exercise  and  hold  yourself  erect. 

6.  Learn  to  rest  and  to  keep  yourself  calm. 

7.  Guard  yourself,  so  far  as  you  can,  from  dis- 
ease germs. 

Form  these  seven  habits  and  they  will  do  more  than 
all  the  medicines  in  the  land  to  keep  you  in  health. 

Making  hygienic  habits  a  part  of  our  lives. 
Our  habits  become  a  part  of  our  way  of  living  and 


100  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

doing  things,  and  we  do  not  think  of  them  as  some- 
thing that  it  requires  extra  work  to  carry  out.  If 
you  will  form  the  habits  that  we  have  mentioned 
above,  you  will  soon  clean  your  teeth  as  a  matter 
of  course  and  wonder  how  any  one  can  feel  com- 
fortable without  doing  so.  You  will  find  yourself 
surprised  that  any  one  should  want  to  make  him- 
self sick  by  eating  too  much  or  by  swallowing  his 
food  without  chewing  it.  You  will  think  it  strange 
that  any  one  should  live  in  a  thick,  stuffy  atmos- 
phere when  there  is  pure  air  only  the  thickness  of 
a  window-pane  away.  You  will  feel  your  own  hard 
muscles  and  almost  pity  the  flabby-muscled  people 
whom  you  meet.  You  will  get  out  of  patience  with 
the  person  who  potters  around  when  he  ought  to  go 
to  bed;  and  you  will  be  amused  when  you  see  some 
one  get  excited  over  nothing  and  run  around  like  an 
ant  that  has  lost  its  way.  You  will  guard  yourself 
from  disease  germs  without  feeling  that  you  are 
taking  extra  trouble;  and  you  will  feel  sorry  for 
the  poor  persons  all  about  you  who  needlessly  suffer 
from  germ  diseases.  Put  into  practice  these  health 
habits,  and  see  if  after  a  little  while  it  is  any  special 
work  for  you  to  carry  them  out. 

Mental  habits.  As  we  form  habits  of  the  body, 
so  we  form  habits  of  the  mind.  And  as  it  is  the 
habits  and  not  the  single  acts  that  are  important 
to  the  body,  so  it  is  the  habits  that  are  important 
to  the  mind.  A  boy  does  not  fail  in  his  class  because 


THE  IMPORTANCE   OF  HABIT  IOI 

he  misses  school  one  day,  and  he  cannot  pass  his 
examinations,  with  a  high  mark  by  studying  his 
lessons  for  one  day.  It  is  the  steady 
work  day  by  day  that  gives  the  train- 
ing of  the  mind,  the  store  of  knowl- 
edge, and  the  habits  of  work  that 
enable  a  pupil  to  pass  up  from  grade 
to  grade  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 
Form  the  habit  of  studying  and 
you  will  find  that  it  is  as  easy  to 
learn  your  lessons  as  it  is  to  fail  to 
learn  them. 

Youth  the  time  when  lasting 
habits  are  formed.  Two  or  three 
days  are  enough  to  form  or  break  a 
habit  in  a  baby,  but  the  older  we 
become  the  harder  it  is  for  us  to 
break  old  habits  and  to  form  new 
ones.  Just  as  the  bones  harden  young  man  tied  this 
as  we  become  older,  with  whatever  hickory  tree  in  a 

7  knot.     Now  all  the 

shapes  they  had  in  youth,  so  the  men  in  the  world 
nervous  system  becomes  set  in  its  could  not  untie  !t 

f    .    .          .  .  The  habits  that  we 

ways  of  doing  things  as  we  advance  form  in  youth  are 
in  years.  You  should  form  habits  kn°ts  that  we  can- 

,!  MI  •        j_i       not    untie   in  later 

that  will  carry  you  on  in  the  yearg  (From  a 
road  to  health,  and  to  respected,  photograph  by 
truthful,  successful  manhood  and  Mai°r  Ben  Cun~ 

mngham,     Marys- 
WOmanhood.  ^  Tennessee.) 


102  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

Questions  :  i.  What  do  we  mean  by  a  habit?  2.  How 
are  habits  formed?  3.  Is  it  as  easy  to  form  a  good  habit 
as  a  bad  habit?  4.  Name  some  habits  that  help  to  pre- 
serve the  health.  5.  How  can  one  make  these  a  part  of 
his  life?  6.  How  are  mental  habits  formed?  7.  Why 
should  we  form  good  habits  in  youth?  8.  What  is  meant 
by  the  old  saying,  "As  the  twig  is  bent  the  tree  is  inclined"? 

9.  By  the  saying,  "  You  can't  teach  an  old  dog  new  tricks'? 

10.  Do  proverbs  of  this  kind  usually  express  some  truth? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  teacher  will 
find  the  chapter  on  Habit  in  either  James'  Psychology  for  Teachers 
or  James'  Talks  to  Teachers  (both  published  by  Henry  Holt  and 
Company,  New  York)  most  suggestive  and  helpful. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-TWO 

THE  EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  BODY 

As  we  have  ..studied  the  great  systems  of  organs 
that  do  the  work  of  the  body,  we  have  learned  that 
some  of  these  organs  are  injured  by  the  use  of  al- 
cohol. This  would  be  sufficient  reason  for  avoiding 
alcoholic  drinks,  even  though  there  were  no  other 
reasons.  But  aside  from  the  damage  done  .by  it  to 
separate  organs,  alcohol,  has  far-reaching  effects 
upon  the  body  as  a  whole.  These  effects  are  more 
serious  than  the  damage  done  to  any  single  organ, 
and  we  cannot  fully  understand  the  evils  which 
result  from  the  use  of  alcohol  until  we  know  what 
these  effects  are. 

Alcohol  not  a  brain  stimulant.  It  is  well 
known  that  alcohol  in  large  quantities  is  a  cause 
of  delirium  tremens,  paralysis,  and  insanity.  The 
effect  of  small  amounts  of  alcohol  on  the  nervous 
system  is  not  so  well  understood,  and  many  per- 
sons still  believe  that  a  glass  of  beer  or  wine  stim- 
ulates the  brain  and  increases  the  working  power  of 
the  mind  and  body.  This  idea  is  a  mistake.  Some 
typesetters  were  given  an  ounce  (two  tablespoon- 
fuls)  of  alcohol  on  certain  days,  and  a  record  was 
kept  of  their  work.  These  men  did  one  tenth  less 
work  and  made  one  fourth  more  mistakes  on  the 
days  when  they  used  alcohol  than  they  did  on  days 
when  they  had  no  alcohol,  and  the  effects  of  the 
alcohol  lasted  through  the  second  day.  A  man  who 
took  three  ounces  of  alcohol  each  day  for  twelve 

103 


104  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

days  could  add  figures  only  three  fifths  as  fast  as 
when  he  took  no  alcohol,  while  it  took  him  more 

6.5  deaths  for  each 
100  cases  of  sickness 

2.3  -weeks  of  sickness  a  year  among    members    of 

for  each  member  of  societies  societies    that    admit 

that  admit  drinkers  drinkers 


1.2  weeks  of  sick-  I  ^.5  deaths  for  each 

ness    a  year  for  •  IOo  cases  of  sickness 

each  member  of  ah-  I  among  abstainers 
stainers'  societies 


FIGS.  75  and  76.  Some  of  the  benefit  societies  in  Australia  take 
in  as  members  both  drinkers  and  non-drinkers,  while  others  admit 
only  those  who  do  not  drink.  The  short  line  in  the  left-hand  figure 
represents  the  average  amount  of  sickness  a  year  for  each  member 
of  the  abstainers'  societies,  and  the  long  line  represents  the  average 
amount  of  sickness  a  year  for  each  member  of  the  societies  that 
admit  both  drinkers  and  abstainers.  Of  the  members  of  the  ab- 
stainers' societies  who  were  attacked  by  sickness,  3.$  in  a  hundred 
died  (represented  by  the  short  line  of  the  right-hand  figure);  of 
the  members  of  the  other  societies  who  were  attacked  by  sickness, 
6.5  in  a  hundred  died  (represented  by  the  long  line  of  the  right-hand 
figure).1 

than  three  times  as  long  to  memorize  a  certain  num- 
ber of  lines  of  poetry.  These  facts  show  that  the 
power  to  do  mental  work  is  lessened  by  alcohol, 

1  From  statistics  compiled  by  Hon.  H.  Dillon  Gouge,  Public 
Actuary  of  South  Australia. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL   ON  THE  BODY     105 

even  when  taken  in  small  amounts.  This  effect 
lasts  for  at.,  least  forty-eight  hours  after  a  small 
dose,  and  for  this  reason  the  person  who  drinks  alco- 
hol daily  is  never  able  to  do  his  full  day's  work. 
Alcohol  is  not  a  brain  stimulant. 

The  resistance  of  the  body  to  the  germs  weak- 
ened by  alcohol.  Persons  who  use  alcohol  are 
more  easily  attacked  by  germ  diseases  than  are 
those  who  do  not  use  alcohol,  and  the  drinkers 
suffer  more  severely  when  they  are  attacked.  In 
pneumonia  the  death-rate  among  drinkers  is  nearly 
twice  as  high  as  it  is  among  non-drinkers,  and  in 
one  epidemic  of  cholera  in  Glasgow  the  death-rate 
among  the  alcohol  users  attacked  was  nearly  five 
times  as  high  as  it  was  among  the  sober  men  who 
took  the  disease.  Many  of  the  foremost  medical 
men  are  now  convinced  that  the  giving  of  alcohol 
to  a  patient  who  is  suffering  from  pneumonia, 
diphtheria,  cholera,  typhoid  fever,  or  other  germ 
disease  is  not  only  useless  but  positively  harmful. 

Alcohol  an  ally  of  tuberculosis.  In  1905  med- 
ical men  who  were  interested  in  the  study  of 
tuberculosis  met  in  a  convention  in  Paris,  to  dis- 
cuss means  for  preventing  the  spread  of  this  dis- 
ease. In  this  convention  the  following  resolution 
was  adopted:  "In  view  of  the  close  connection 
between  alcoholism  and  tuberculosis,  this  Congress 
strongly  emphasizes  the  necessity  and  importance  of 
combining  the  fight  against  tuberculosis  with  the 


106  PRIMER    OF  HYGIENE 

struggle  against  alcohol."  These  men  believe  that 
the  use  of  alcohol  is  responsible  for  a  great  deal 
of  consumption,  and  they  are  able  to  give  good 
reasons  for  their  belief.1 

Alcohol  and  length  of  life.  The  records  of  life 
insurance  companies  show  that  out  of  the  same 
number  of  drinking  men  and  total  abstainers  there 
are  about  fourteen  deaths  of  drinking  men  for  every 
ten  among  abstainers.  The  number  of  drinking 
men  dying  between  fifty  and  sixty  years  of  age  is 
almost  three  times  as  great  as  the  number  of  teeto- 
talers. A  man  at  twenty  years  of  age  may  expect 
to  live  42.2  years  if  he  does  not  drink,  but  only 
15  years  if  he  uses  alcohol.  These  figures  show 
that  alcohol  very  considerably  shortens  the  life  of 
the  user. 

Other  effects  of  alcohol.  The  drunkard  is  not 
the  only  person  who  suffers  from  the  results  of 
his  habits.  A  vast  number  of  persons  live  in  need 
of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  because  the  money 
that  should  have  supplied  these  things  has  been 

1  In  comparing  death-rates  in  different  occupations  the  hours 
and  character  of  the  labor,  the  chances  of  infection,  the  amount  of 
exposure,  the  age  of  the  workmen,  and  other  factors  must  be  taken 
into  consideration,  but  statistics  indicate  that  the  use  of  alcohol 
increases  the  amount  of  consumption  among  the  users.  For  ex- 
ample, American  statistics  (Census  of  1900)  show  that  the  death- 
rate  from  consumption  among  all  occupied  males  over  ten  years  of 
age  was  236.7,  among  brewers,  distillers,  and  rectifiers  was  256.8, 
among  saloon  and  restaurant  keepers  was  285.6,  and  among  clergy- 
men was  123.5.,  English  statistics  (1899)  show  that  where  there 


*    THE  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL   ON  THE  BODY  IO/ 

spent  for  drink.  Among  these  persons  there  is  an 
untold  amount  of  disease  and  suffering  and  wretch- 
edness. Almost  one  third  of  all  persons  who  are 
supported  by  charity,  and  nearly  one  half  of  all 
homeless  and  friendless  children  in  children's  homes, 
owe  their  condition  to  some  one's  intemperance. 
"  The  worst  feature  of  the  poverty  caused  by  alcohol 
is  not  the  fact  that  the  drunkard  himself  suffers, 
but  the  fact  that  innocent  persons  suffer  far  more 
than  he." 

What  employers  think  of  the  use  of  alcohol. 
Some  years  ago  6976  business  men  employing 
1,745,823  men  were  asked  whether  they  employed 
men  who  drank.  Of  those  who  replied  5363  said 
they  would  not  employ  men  who  were  known  to 
drink  and  1613  said  they  made  no  effort  to  learn 
the  habits  of  their  men.  Most  of  the  great  rail- 
roads strictly  enforce  rules  against  drinking  while  on 
duty,  and  many  of  them  will  not  employ  a  drinking 
man.  Every  year  the  number  of  positions  open  to 
the  user  of  alcohol  grows  smaller. 

were  1000  deaths  among  all  occupied  males  there  were  1427  deaths 
among  an  equal  number  of  brewers. 

According  to  figures  collected  from  the  records  of  the  Gotha 
Life  Insurance  Company  of  Prussia  by  Professor  Guttstadt,  the 
number  of  persons  in  1000  who  die  of  tuberculosis  among  different 
classes  of  people  is  as  follows: 

All  persons  over  25  years     160      Hotel  keepers 237 

Ministers 76       Brewers 344 

Physicians 113      Bartenders 556 


io8 


PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 


Employ 
drinkers 


What  medical  men  think  of  the  use  of  alcohol. 

The  attitude  of  the  great  majority  of  medical  men 
Employ  only  abstainers  has  been  so  well  expressed  by  a 

recent  writer  1  that  we  repeat 
the  substance  of  his  statement. 
"So  I  am  bound  to  believe, 
on  the  evidence,  that  if  you 
take  alcohol  habitually  in  any 
quantity  whatever,  it  is  to 
some  extent  a  menace  to  you. 
I  am  bound  to  believe,  in  the 
light  of  what  science  has 
revealed,  (i)  that  you  are 
threatening  the  physical 
FIG.  77.  There  were  5363  structure  of  your  stomach, 
employers  who  said  that  your  liver,  your  kidneys,  your 

they  would  not  employ  men 

whom  they  knew  to  be  heart,  your  blood  vessels, 
drinking  men,  while  only  your  nerves,  your  brain;  (2) 

1613    employers   said   that    ,*,  -,  •, 

they  did  not  ask  about  the  that  you  are  unquestionably 
habits  of  their  men.  lessening  your  power  to  work 

in  any  field,  be  it  physical,  intellectual,  or  artistic; 
(3)  that  you  are  in  some  measure  lowering  the  grade 
of  your  mind,  dulling  your  higher  sense,  and  taking 
the  edge  off  your  morals;  (4)  that  you  are  distinctly 
lessening  your  chances  of  maintaining  your  health 

.  1  Dr.  Henry  Smith  Williams  in  Alcohol:  How  It  Affects  the  Indi- 
vidual, the  Community,  and  the  Race,  published  by  McClure,  Phil- 
lips &  Company,  New  York.  This  little  book  gives  an  accurate 
summary  of  what  is  scientifically  known  of  the  effects  of  the  use  of 
alcohol. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  BODY    109 

and  of  living  to  old  age;  (5)  that  you  are  adding 
yourself  to  the  number  of  those  whose  habits  cause 
more  suffering  and  misery,  disease  and  death,  than  do 
all  other  causes  combined. "  To  these  conclusions  we 
might  add  (6)  that  you  are  fastening  upon  yourself 
a  habit  that  will  lead  many  business  men  to  refuse 
to  employ  you.1 

Questions  :  i.  What  are  some  of  the  effects  of  drunken- 
ness on  the  nervous  system?  2.  What  effects  have  small 
doses  of  alcohol  on  the  power  to  do  mental  work?  3.  How 
long  does  the  effect  of  a  single  dose  last?  4.  How  does  the 
use  of  alcohol  affect  the  resistance  of  the  body  to  germ 
diseases?  5.  To  tuberculosis?  6.  What  opinion  do  many 
physicians  hold  in  regard  to  the  use  of  alcohol  in  the  treat- 
ment of  germ  diseases?  7.  How  does  the  use  of  alcohol 
affect  length  of  life?  8.  How  does  the  use  of  alcohol  affect 
the  drunkard's  family?  9.  What  do  employers  think  of 
the  use  of  alcohol? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Make  clear  that 
Figures  75  and  76  are  not  comparisons  between  drinkers  and  ab- 
stainers, but  that  the  morbidity  and  mortality  rates  in  a  society  com- 
posed of  drinkers  only  would  be  higher  than  either  of  those  shown. 
Inquire  of  the  children  as  to  what  they  know  of  the  attitude  of  life 
insurance  companies  toward  moderate  drinkers. 

1  All  authors  are  agreed  that  the  use  of  alcohol  by  the  normal 
person  has  never  produced  any  good.  Small  amounts  may  be 
taken  even  for  a  long  time  without  producing  any  very  evident 
changes,  but  even  these  small  amounts  are  in  no  sense  to  be  looked 
upon  as  good.  The  well-proved  statement  that  a  single  glass  of 
beer  interferes  markedly  with  the  ability  to  think  and  the  ability 
to  work  is  quite  enough  argument  for  letting  alcohol,  in  any  form, 
alone.  —  DR.  MARTIN  H.  FISCHER. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-THREE 

THE  EFFECTS   OF  TOBACCO   ON  THE  BODY 

"LESS  harm  would  be  done  by  tobacco  if  it  were 
more  harmful."  This  sentence  tells  a  great  truth, 
and  it  explains  why  there  are  more  tobacco  users 
to-day  than  ever  before.  The  harm  that  tobacco 
does  is  not  felt  in  a  day  or  a  month,  and  many 
tobacco  users  are  unable  to  see  that  the  habit  is  in- 
juring them.  Many  other  persons  feel  that  they 
would  be  better  off  without  tobacco,  but  have  the 
habit  of  using  it  so  firmly  fixed  that  they  are  un- 
able to  break  it.  While  the  use  of  tobacco  has  wide- 
spread effects  upon  the  whole  body,  we  shall  study 
only  its  effects  upon  the  heart,  the  digestion,  and 
the  nervous  system. 

The  effect  of  tobacco  upon  the  heart.  To- 
bacco contains  a  poison  called  nicotin,  which  is 
highly  injurious  to  the  heart.  In  those  who  use 
tobacco  to  excess,  the  heart  beats  more  rapidly  than 
it  should,  while  the  force  of  its  beat  is  greatly  les- 
sened. When  the  habit  has  been  continued  for  a 
long  time,  the  heart's  action  sometimes  becomes 
very  irregular,  at  one  time  beating  too  rapidly,  at 
another  too  slowly,  and  occasionally  missing  a  beat 
altogether.  This  is  known  as  tobacco  heart.  While 
it  is  a  serious  condition,  it  usually  disappears  when 
the  use  of  tobacco  is  stopped. 

The  effect  of  tobacco  upon  the  digestive 
organs.  The  worst  effects  of  tobacco  upon  diges- 
tion are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  heart  is  weakened 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  TOBACCO   ON  THE  BODY    III 

and  the  digestive  organs  do  not  get  a  sufficient 
supply  of  blood.  The  digestive  juices  are  lessened 
in  amount,  so  that  the  food  cannot  be  promptly 
digested.  This  trouble  comes  on  slowly,  and  often 
is  not  noticed  by  the  person  himself.  Even  when 
it  becomes  serious,  the  tobacco  user  often  believes 
that  his  indigestion  is  due  to  some  other  cause. 
When  such  a  person  gives  up  the  tobacco  habit,  he 
is  usually  surprised  to  find  that  there  is  great  im- 
provement in  his  powers  of  digestion  and  in  his 
general  health. 

The  effect  of  tobacco  upon  the  nervous  sys- 
tem. When  used  in  moderate  amounts,  tobacco 
soothes  and  quiets  an  excited  or  worried  person, 
enabling  him  to  go  on  with  his  work  for  a  time. 
But  often  one  who  has  his  mind  cleared  of  worry  in 
this  way  forgets  the  importance  of  the  work  he  has 
to  do,  and  idles  away  his  time  instead  of  going  ear- 
nestly to  work  to  finish  his  task.  When  used  in 
larger  amounts,  tobacco  makes  the  whole  nervous 
system  more  irritable.  The  brain  of  the  tobacco 
user  may  become  so  active  that  he  cannot  sleep. 
His  muscles  are  weak,  and  he  cannot  control  them,  his 
hands  tremble,  and  he  becomes  so  restless  that  it 
is  impossible  for  him  to  remain  quietly  at  work. 

Tobacco  and  scholarship.  The  worst  effects 
of  tobacco  upon  the  nervous  system  are  its  effects 
upon  the  mind.  Wherever  smokers  and  non-smok- 
ers have  been  compared,  it  has  been  found  that 


H2  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

non-smokers  are  much  better  students.  They  not 
only  prepare  their  lessons  more  easily  and  more 
quickly,  but  they  retain  what  they  have  learned 
longer  than  the  smokers.  Of  2336  smokers  in  the 
public  schools  of  one  city,  only  320  were  able  to 
keep  up  with  their  classes,  while  only  16  were  re- 
ported as  "bright"  or  "better  than  average'7  stu- 
dents. Most  of  the  backward  boys  in  the  schools 
are  recruits  from  the  ranks  of  tobacco  users. 

Tobacco  a  nuisance.  Even  if  the  use  of  tobacco 
were  harmless,  it  would  still  be  a  nuisance  to  other 
people.  Yellow  fingers  and  stained  teeth  are  un- 
pleasant sights,  and  many  people  are  made  sick  by 
the  odor  of  tobacco  smoke.  No  one  has  a  right  to 
do  that  which  makes  his  neighbors  uncomfortable. 
No  one  has  a  right  to  do  that  which  will  injure  his 
own  body.  Tobacco  is  both  harmful  to  the  user 
and  annoying  to  others,  and  the  only  sensible  and 
right  thing  to  do  is  to  avoid  its  use. 

Questions  :  i.  Why  is  the  use  of  tobacco  on  the  increase? 
2.  Why  do  those  who  know  that  tobacco  is  injuring  them 
continue  its  use?  3.  What  are  the  effects  of  tobacco  upon 
the  heart?  4.  Can  this  condition  be  cured?  5.  In  what 
way  does  tobacco  interfere  with  digestion?  6.  What  effect 
have  small  amounts  of  tobacco  on  the  nervous  system?  7. 
Large  amounts?  8.  How  does  its  use  affect  scholarship? 
9.  Give  two  final  arguments  against  the  use  of  tobacco. 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  economic  side  of 
the  tobacco  question.  The  effect  of  tobacco  on  the  growth  and 
development  of  the  body. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-FOUR 

THE  EYES  AND  THEIR  CARE 


FIGS.  78  and  79.  In  writing  the  light  should  come  from  the  left 
side,  and  the  seat  and  desk  should  be  the  proper  height  to  make  it 
easy  to  keep  the  body  and  head  erect  and  the  shoulders  even.  In 
reading  the  light  should  come  from  the  side  so  that  it  will  shine  on 
the  book  and  not  into  the  eyes. 

WE  look  at  the  sky  at  night  and  see  it  studded  with 
stars.  Sometimes  we  see  the  round  moon  like  a 
great  quiet  mother  among  the  twinkling  stars.  We 
look  at  a  rose  and  we  see  its  beauty  and  the  richness 
of  its  color.  We  know  its  size  and  the  shape  of  its 
leaves. 

What  is  it  that  comes  from  the  stars  and  the  rose 
to  the  eye?  It  is  light.  What  does  the  light  do  in 
the  eye  that  causes  us. to  see?  It  starts  messages 
in  the  nerves  of  the  eye,  and  these  messages  are 
carried  to  the  brain.  What  do  we  learn  from  these 
messages?  We  learn  from  them  the  greater  part  of 

"3 


114 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


all  that  we  know  of  the  world  about  us.  To  get  an 
idea  of  the  importance  of  the  eyes  and  of  the  mes- 
sages that  come  from  them,  think  how  helpless  you 
would  be  if  you  had  no  eyes  to  guide  you;  how  little 
you  would  know  if  you  should  forget  all  that  you 
have  learned  through  their  use;  how  much  pleasure 

you  get  from  seeing  the 
world  about  you,  and 
how  dreadful  it  would 
seem  to  pass  your  life 
in  the  darkness  of  a 
long  unlighted  night. 
nerve  How  the  eyes  are 
protected.  The  eyes 
passes  back  are  protected  by  the 
eyelids,  eyelashes,  and 
eyebrows.  They  are 
bathed  and  washed  free  from  dust  by  the  tears. 
These  are  secreted  by  a  gland  in  the  outer  part  of 
the  upper  eyelid  and  drain  into  the  nose  through 
a  little  duct  from  the  inside  corner  of  the  eye. 

How  the  eyes  are  moved  about.  Each  eye  is 
moved  about  by  six  little  muscles,  which  can  turn 
the  eye  toward  the  object  that  we  wish  to  see.  A 
person  who  squints  or  is  cross-eyed  has  some  of  his 
eye  muscles  shorter  than  others.  A  skillful  physi- 
cian can  remedy  this  trouble  if  it  is  taken  in  time. 

Near-sighted  and  far-sighted  persons.  Images 
or  pictures  of  the  things  that  we  see  are  formed  in 


FIG.  80.     The    light 

into  the  eye  and  starts  messages  in 

the  nerve  to  the  brain. 


EYES  AND    THEIR   CARE 


the  back  of  the  eye,  just  as  an  image  is  formed  in 
the  camera  of  a  photographer.  It  is  these  images 
that  start  the  messages  along  the  nerves  from  the 
eye  to  the  brain.  From  these  messages  we  can  tell 
the  size, .  form,  and  color  of  objects.  We  can  tell 
many  other  things  about  them,  such  as  whether 
they  are  rough  or  smooth  and  how  far  away  they 


FIG.  81.  The  muscles  that  move  the  eye.  When  you  read  with  a 
book  very  close  to  your  eyes,  as  you  do  when  you  bend  forward 
over  your  desk  and  rest  your  chin  on  the  book  you  are  reading,  you 
put  a  great  strain  on  the  muscles  that  turn  the  eyes  inward. 

are.  In  the  eyes  of  a  near-sighted  person  the  images 
of  near-by  objects  are  clear  and  distinct,  but  the 
images  of  distant  objects  are  blurred  and  indistinct. 
In  far-sighted  persons  the  images  of  distant  objects 
are  clear,  but  it  is  a  great  strain  on  the  eyes  to  see 
near-by  objects  clearly.  In  some  eyes  the  images 
are  always  confused,  and  it  is  not  possible  for  the 
person  to  see  objects  at  any  distance  clearly.  All 
these  troubles  can  be  corrected  and  the  images 


Il6  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

made  distinct  by  wearing  spectacles  that  are  prop- 
erly fitted  to  the  eyes.  A  person  who  holds  his 
book  less  than  twelve  inches  from  his  eyes  when  he 
is  reading  is  near-sighted  and  needs  glasses. 

The  importance  of  fitting  the  eyes  with  spec- 
tacles. If  the  images  that  are  formed  in  the  eyes 
are  not  clear  and  distinct,  the  eyes  will  always  give 
trouble.  Near-sighted  and  far-sighted  persons,  and 
others  who  do  not  see  clearly,  should,  therefore, 
have  spectacles  at  once.  Many  cases  of  nervous- 
ness disappear  as  if  by  magic  when  the  eyes  are 
fitted  with  glasses.  Many  persons  who  are  wretched 
from  indigestion  find  out  that  the  trouble  is  in  their 
eyes  and  not  in  their  stomachs,  and  that  their  health 
is  completely  restored  by  wearing  glasses.  Thou- 
sands of  people  are  suffering  from  blinding  head- 
aches, when  all  that  is  needed  to  save  them  from  this 
pain  is  a  pair  of  spectacles.  Even  the  muscles  are 
affected  by  the  eyes,  for  it  has  been  found  that 
when  boys  who  needed  glasses  began  to  wear  them 
they  became  much  faster  runners.  This  was  be- 
cause the  boys  were  suffering  from  eye-strain,  and 
their  nervous  systems  and  general  health  were  not 
in  good  condition,  although  the  boys  themselves 
had  never  realized  it. 

Eye  trouble  very  common  among  school  chil- 
dren. Of  432,000  school  children  examined  in 
Massachusetts  in  1907,  more  than  one  in  five  had 
defective  vision.  In  the  United  States  it  is  esti- 


THE  EYES  AND   THEIR   CARE 


117 


mated  that  there  are  2,500,000  school  children  who 
ought  to  be  wearing  glasses. 

Do  you  hold  a  book  close  to  your  eyes  when  you 
are  reading?  Are  you  falling  behind  in  your  school 
work  because  you  cannot  see  what  is  written  on  the 
blackboard?  Do  your 
eyes  smart  and  ache 
after  you  have  been 
studying  for  some  time? 
Are  they  red  and  in- 
flamed? Do  you  have 
headache  or  stomach 
trouble?  If  so,  try  to 
have  your  eyes  examined 
and  to  get  glasses  if  you 

03  .  J  .  FIG.  82.  This  boy  carries  his 
need  them.  It  is  a  mis-  head  on  one  side  because  of  eye 
take  to  think  that  going  trouble.  He  needs  to  be  examined 

by  an  oculist.  Do  you  carry 
your  head  on  one  side  or  turn  it 
to  one  side  when  you  look  closely 
at  objects?  (After  Gould.) 

go  to  an  oculist  for  glasses,  and  it  is  a  mistake 
to  go  to  a  travelling  optician,  whom  you  may  never 
see  again;  for  he  may  be  more  interested  in  getting 
your  money  than  in  helping  your  eyes. 

The  importance  of  a  good  light  for  work.  The 
eyes  are  often  injured  by  working  in  a  poor  light. 
It  is  a  bad  plan  to  try  to  read  between  sundown 
and  dark,  as  one  may  not  notice  that  darkness  is 
coming  on  and  may  strain  the  eyes  without  know- 


without  glasses  will  help 
a  person  to  outgrow  eye 
trouble.  It  is  best  to 


Il8  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

ing  it.  Persons  often  carelessly  seat  themselves  too 
far  from  the  lamp  when  they  read.  Dark  school- 
rooms are  injuring  the  eyes  of  thousands  of  children. 
A  bright  light  shining  into  the  eyes  is  even  worse 
than  too  dim  a  light,  and  one  should  not  face  a 
window  or  a  lamp  when  reading  or  studying.  Light 
from  the  left  side  is  best  for  writing,  for  then  the 
shadow  of  the  hand  does  not  interfere  with  the 
work.  A  flickering  gas  light  should  not  be  used  for 
reading.  A  book  printed  on  shiny,  glazed  paper  is 
hard  on  the  eyes. 

Resting  the  eyes.  Using  the  eyes  in  close 
work,  such  as  reading,  embroidering,  or  sewing, 
causes  the  eyes  to  become  tired.  When  doing  such 
work  it  is  a  good  plan  to  close  the  eyes  for  a  few 
minutes  occasionally  or  to  look  out  of  a  window  in 
order  to  rest  the  eye  muscles;  or  one  may  rest  the 
whole  body  as  well  as  the  eyes  by  standing  up  and 
going  through  one  of  the  exercises  described  in 
Chapter  26.  Reading  while  lying  down  or  when 
walking  or  riding  in  a  street  car  or  train  quickly 
tires  the  eyes,  and  if  it  must  be  done  should  be  kept 
up  for  only  a  very  short  time.  Serious  eye  troubles 
are  apt  to  follow  measles  and  scarlet  fever,  and  the 
eyes  should  be  shielded  from  bright  light  and  rested 
during  these  diseases  and  during  recovery  from  them. 

Catching  diseases  of  the  eye.  There  are  a 
number  of  catching  diseases  of  the  eye  (often  called 
" pinkeye"  or  some  similar  name)  that  are  caused 


THE  EYES  AND   THEIR   CARE 


119 


by  germs.  The  germs  are  carried  from  one  person 
to  another  on  towels,  on  the  hands,  by  flies,  and  in 
other  ways/  These  diseases  often  leave  the  eyes 
weak  and  inflamed  for  life,  and  you  should  make 
every  effort  to  avoid  the  germs  that  cause  them. 

Do  not  wash  your  eyes  in  a  public  wash  basin 
or  wipe  them  on  a  public  towel.  Do  not  rub 
them  or  pick  at  them  with 
your  fingers.  Boracic  acid 
dissolved  in  water  (the  solu- 
tion is  not  too  strong  as 
long  as  it  is  all  dissolved) 
and  dropped  into  the  eyes 
once  or  twice  a  day  will 
often  help  to  kill  bacteria 
and  relieve  the  smarting 
and  burning  that  comes  from 
red  and  inflamed  eyes. 
Strong  eye  washes  and  eye  salves  should  not  be  used 
without  the  advice  of  a  physician. 

Foreign  bodies  in  the  eye.  When  a  particle 
of  dust  or  other  foreign  body  gets  into  the  eye,  the 
eye  should  not  be  rubbed.  Sometimes  the  body  can 
be  washed  out  with  clean  water;  or  if  the  upper  eye- 
lashes are  taken  between  the  finger  and  the  thumb 
and  the  eyelid  drawn  down  and  out,  the  position  of  the 
body  may  be  changed  until  it  can  easily  be  removed. 
Some  persons  are  skillful  enough  to  turn  the  eyelids 
wrong  side  out  and  wipe  the  particle  off  with  a  cloth 


FIG.   83.      Germs    often   get 
into  the  eyes  from  the  fingers. 


120  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

or  a  tuft  of  cotton.  When  this  is  done,  the  fingers, 
the  cloth,  and  everything  that  touches  the  eye  should 
be  absolutely  clean,  for  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  get  into 
the  eye  germs  that  will  cause  great  trouble.  Sharp 
pieces  of  metal  ought  to  be  removed  by  a  physician 
or  an  oculist  before  they  cut  deep  into  the  eye  and 
start  inflammation. 

Questions :  i.  How  does  the  light  that  enters  our  eyes 
cause  us  to  see?  2.  How  are  the  eyes  protected?  3.  How 
are  they  cleansed?  4.  Where  do  the  tears  come  from?  5. 
Where  do  they  go  after  they  leave  the  eye?  6.  How  are 
the  eyes  moved?  7.  Of  what  advantage  is  this  to  us?  8. 
What  causes  a  person  to  be  cross-eyed?  9.  What  is  the 
trouble  with  the  images  in  the  eyes  of  a  near-sighted  per- 
son? 10.  How  may  these  difficulties  be  remedied?  n. 
Why  should  this  be  done?  12.  What  are  some  of  the 
symptoms  of  eye  trouble?  13.  Explain  what  kind  of  light 
is  needed  in  reading  and  studying,  and  how  the  light 
should  fall  on  the  page.  14.  How  may  the  eyes  be  rested? 
15.  How  do  germs  that  cause  diseases  of  the  eye  spread 
from  one  person  to  another?  16.  Tell  how  to  remove  a 
foreign  body  from  the  eye. 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  teacher  should 
test  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  in  the  room.  If  no  test  card  is  pro- 
vided by  the  school,  one  can  be  obtained  by  sending  ten  cents  in 
stamps  to  World  Book  Company,  Yonkers-on-Hudson,  New  York. 

Some  children  will  be  found  who  cannot  read  the  writing  on  the 
blackboard  from  the  back  of  the  room.  These  children  should 
be  placed  on  the  front  benches,  and  the  parents  should  be  pre- 
vailed on  to  provide  the  needed  glasses  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  teacher  should  also  look  to  the  proper  lighting  of  the  school- 
room, paying  special  attention  to  whether  parts  of  it  are  too  dark 
and  whether  the  children  are  seated  facing  the  light. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-FIVE 

THE  EARS  AND  THEIR  CARE 


inner  ear 


tympanic  > 
membrane 

middle  ear 

Eustacbian  tube 

FIG.  84.    The  ear.    The  ear  is  composed  of  an  outer,  a  middle,  and 
an  inner  part. 

WHEN  you  throw  a  stone  into  water,  the  stone 
causes  waves  to  run  out  in  the  water.  When  you 
ring  a  bell,  the  bell  causes  waves  to  run  out  in  the 
air.  When  you  shout,  when  a  whistle  blows,  or  when 
a  bird  sings,  waves  are  made  to  run  through  the  air. 
When  these  waves  strike  the  ear,  you  hear  the  bell, 
the  shouting,  the  whistle,  or  the  singing  of  the  bird. 
If  the  air  waves  are  large,  the  sound  will  be  loud. 
If  the  air  waves  are  small,  the  sound  will  be  faint  in 
your  ears. 

The  function  of  the  ear.  The  ear  collects  the 
sound  waves  and  makes  them  strike  on  the  ends  of 
the  nerves  of  hearing.  This  causes  the  nerves  of 


122  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

hearing  to  carry  messages  to  the  brain,  and  when 
these  messages  arrive  in  the  brain  we  hear  the  sound. 
Certainly  nothing  in  the  world  is  more  wonderful 
than  the  human  ear,  for  it  changes  the  air  waves 
that  come  from  the  strings  of  a  violin  or  piano  into 
the  sweetest  music,  and  by  collecting  the  waves 
that  are  caused  by  the  voices  of  our  friends,  it 
brings  to  us  the  thoughts  that  they  wish  to  express 
to  us. 

The  structure  of  the  ear.  The  ear  has  three 
divisions:  the  outer,  the  middle,  and  the  inner  ear. 
The  outer  ear  is  made  up  of  the  part  that  we  see 
and  a  canal  that  runs  down  into  the  head.  At  the 
bottom  of  this  canal  is  a  little  skin-like  membrane 
called  the  tympanic  membrane.  This  separates  the 
outer  and  the  middle  ear. 

The  middle  ear  is  a  little  cavity  in  the  bone  of  the 
skull.  It  is  filled  with  air,  and  from  it  a  little  tube 
runs  to  the  throat.  In  the  middle  ear  are  three 
small  bones  which  stretch  across  from  the  tympanic 
membrane  to  the  inner  ear.  The  inner  ear  is  filled 
with  liquid,  and  in  this  liquid  lie  the  endings  of  the 
nerve  of  hearing. 

How  we  hear  a  sound.  The  outer  ear  collects 
the  sound  waves  and  turns  them  down  the  canal 
to  strike  against  the  tympanic  membrane.  This 
sets  the  tympanic  membrane  to  swinging,  and  the 
membrane  puts  the  chain  of  little  bones  in  motion. 
The  motion  of  the  bones  disturbs  the  liquid  in  the 


THE  EARS  AND   THEIR  CARE  123 

inner  ear  and  causes  waves  in  it.  These  waves 
wash  over  the  ends  of  the  nerve  of  hearing  and  start 
messages  to  the  brain,  and  when  these  messages 
reach  the  brain  we  hear  the  sound. 

The  care  of  the  ear.  Practically  all  the  serious 
troubles  of  the  ear  come  from  germs  that  work  up 
the  tube  from  the  throat  into  the  middle  ear.  In 
Figure  26  you  can  see  that  the  openings  of  these 
tubes  are  high  up  in  the  throat,  where  the  matter 
that  falls  into  the  throat  from  the  nose  in  cases  of 
catarrh  passes  over  them  and  where  they  may  be 
pressed  upon  and  closed  by  adenoid  growths  (com- 
pare Figure  37).  Most  children  who  are  hard  of 
hearing  have  nose  or  throat  trouble,  and  most  older 
persons  who  are  deaf  suffered  from  these  troubles 
when  they  were  young. 

The  danger  from  running  ears.  A  running 
ear  means  that  there  are  germs  in  the  ear  that  are 
causing  inflammation  and  forming  the  same  kind  of 
matter  that  comes  from  boils  and  sores.  This 
trouble  ought  by  all  means  to  be  attended  to  at 
once,  for  in  a  running  ear  there  is  already  a  hole  in 
the  tympanic  membrane,  and  there  is  danger  that  this 
membrane  will  be  destroyed  or  that  the  chain  of 
bones  will  be  broken  down  and  incurable  deafness 
caused.  There  is  always  the  danger  also  that  the 
germs  will  work  through  to  the  brain,  which  lies 
close  above  the  ear,  and  cause  the  disease  that  is 
called  meningitis. 


124  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

A  running  ear  ought  to  be  treated  with  medicines 
that  will  kill  the  germs  in  it,  and  this  ought  to  be 
done  by  a  physician.  A  child  with  a  running  ear 
ought  also  to  be  examined  and  treated  for  the  nose 
or  throat  trouble  that  in  most  cases  has  caused 
the  ear  to  become  infected.  Plugs  of  cotton  should 
not  be  worn  in  the  ear,  for  they  do  damage;  the 


FIG.  85.    Testing  a  boy's  hearing  by  trying  how  far  he  can  hear  the 
ticking  of  a  watch. 

ears  ought  to  be  cured  so  that  the  cotton  will  not 
be  needed.  An  earache  may  sometimes  be  kept 
from  coming  on  at  night  by  wearing  a  cap  over  the 
ear  or  by  sleeping  on  a  hot-water  bottle,  and  a  doc- 
tor can  usually  give  something  that  will  stop  the 
pain  for  the  time. 

Do  you  suffer  from  earache?  Have  you  a  running 
ear?  Are  you  hard  of  hearing  and  falling  behind 
in  your  school  work  because  you  cannot  hear  what 
is  said  in  the  school  room?  If  so,  try  to  have  your 
ears  examined  and  treated.  Do  not  let  any  one  tell 


THE  £ARS  AND    THEIR   CARE  12$ 

you  that  you  will  probably  outgrow  your  trouble, 
for  most  of  the  people  who  are  hard  of  hearing  to-day 
are  in  that  condition  because  they  were  neglected  in 
childhood,  and  without  treatment  you  are  likely  to 
grow  into  a  life  of  deafness.  The  ears  were  made 
to  hear  with  and  not  to  rumble  and  roar  and  wreck 
the  nervous  system  with  pain,  and  you  should  try 
to  get  yours  to  serve  the  purpose  for  which  they 
were  intended.  A  physician  who  understands  the 
treatment  of  ear  troubles  will  not  tell  you  to  wait 
and  let  them  get  well  of  themselves. 

Foreign  bodies  in  the  ear.  If  a  live  insect  gets 
into  the  ear,  it  can  be  drowned  and  the  buzzing 
stopped  by  pouring  water  or  oil  into  the  ear.  Only 
a  physician  should  try  to  take  anything  out  of  the 
ear,  for  there  is  always  danger  that  an  unskilled 
person  will  drive  the  object  through  the  tympanic 
membrane.  Sometimes  the  bitter  wax  which  is 
formed  in  the  canal  of  the  ear  blocks  it  up  and  in- 
terferes with  the  hearing.  It  should  be  removed  by 
a  physician. 

Questions  :  i.  How  is  sound  caused?  2.  Why  are  some 
sounds  loud  and  others  faint?  3.  What  is  the  function  of 
the  ear?  4.  Name  the  divisions  of  the  ear.  5.  What  is 
in  the  middle  ear?  6.  How  is  it  connected  with  the  throat? 
7.  What  is  found  in  the  inner  ear?  8.  Explain  what 
happens  in  the  ear  when  we  hear  a  sound.  9.  How  do 
germs  get  into  the  ear?  10.  Why  are  persons  who  have 
catarrh  or  adenoids  especially  liable  to  diseases  of  the  ear? 


126  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

ii.  What  is  the  cause  of  running  ears?  12.  Why  should  run- 
ning ears  never  be  neglected?  13.  What  should  be  done  when 
an  insect  gets  into  the  ear?  14.  Why  is  it  dangerous  for 
any  one  but  a  physician  to  try  to  remove  bodies  from  the 
ear? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  function  of  the  Eus- 
tachian  tube.  Why  a  cold  sometimes  causes  deafness.  The  teacher 
should  test  the  hearing  of  the  children  in  the  room.  Some  who  are 
hard  of  hearing  will  always  be  found,  and  these  ought  to  be  seated 
on  the  front  benches.  A  fairly  accurate  test  of  hearing  can  be  made 
with  a  watch.  Watches  differ  in  the  loudness  of  the  tick,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  ears  should  be  tested  with  the  same  watch 
to  find  how  far  it  ought  to  be  heard.  In  making  the  test  a  quiet 
room  is  necessary  and  the  watch  should  always  be  held  in  the  same 
way.  To  make  a  test  of  hearing  have  the  child  sit  down,  close  his 
eyes,  and  cover  one  ear  with  his  hand.  Then  at  different  distances 
try  if  he  can  hear  the  ticking  of  the  watch.  Sometimes  hold  the 
watch  behind  your  back  or  muffle  it  with  the  hand  or  with  a  hand- 
kerchief when  the  child  thinks  that  it  is  being  held  up  for  him  to 
hear.  This  is  necessary  because  some  people  can  hardly  tell  the  dif- 
ference between  what  they  hear  and  what  they  imagine  they  hear. 
Both  ears  should  be  tested,  and  any  child  who  seems  hard  of  hearing 
should  be  examined  by  a  physician  who  understands  ear  troubles. 
It  is  stated  that  two  thirds  of  all  deafness  is  caused  by  adenoids. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-SIX 

ACCIDENTS 

IN  case  of, accident  in  the  country,  and  sometimes 
even  in  the  city,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  secure 
a  physician  until  considerable  time  has  passed. 
Every  one  therefore  should  understand  what  is  best 
to  be  done  in  some  of  the  more  common  accidents. 
When  one  is  called  on  to  use  this  knowledge,  he 
should  above  all  else  try  to  keep  a  cool  head  and  to 
act  promptly,  for  often  a  great  deal  depends  on 
doing  something  for  the  patient  at  once. 

Broken  bones.  If  a  broken  arm  or  leg  is  al- 
lowed to  be  bent  or  doubled,  there  is  danger  that 
the  ragged  ends  of  the  bones  will  cut  and  wound 
the  muscles,  blood  vessels,  and  nerves.  Keep  the 
limb  straightened  out  until  a  physician  arrives. 

Burning  clothing.  If  your  own  clothing  takes 
fire,  do  not  start  to  run.  Lie  down  and  wrap  your- 
self in  a  rug,  blanket,  or  coat,  or  roll  over  and  over 
to  put  out  the  flame.  Do  not  stand  up  so  that  the 
flame  will  come  up  about  your  face,  for  the  great 
danger  comes  from  breathing  in  the  flame.  If  an- 
other person's  clothing  takes  fire,  wrap  a  rug  or 
blanket  about  him,  and  throw  him  down.  Protect 
your  face  as  much  as  possible  while  doing  this,  and  if 
you  must  pass  through  a  burning  building  close  to  a 
flame,  hold  something  before  your  face.  Until  a 
physician  arrives,  burns  may  be  protected  from  the  air 
with  cloths  spread  with  vaseline  or  dipped  in  water 

that  contains  baking  soda. 

127 


128 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


Fainting.  Lay  the  patient  flat  on  his  back  so 
that  the  blood  will  flow  easily  to  the  head.  Cold 
water  sprinkled  on  the  face  or  ammonia  held  under 
the  nose  will  help  to  restore  consciousness.  Fifteen 
drops  of  ammonia  given  in  a  third  of  a  glass  of 


FIGS.  92  and  93.  In  case  of  drowning,  first  drain  the  water  from  the 
lungs,  as  shown  in  the  left-hand  figure.  Then  as  quickly  as  possible 
get  the  air  to  passing  into  and  out  of  the  lungs,  using  the  method 
shown  in  the  right-hand  figure. 

water  or  a  cup  of  strong  coffee  will  strengthen  the 
patient. 

Apparent  drowning.  Drain  the  water  from 
the  patient's  lungs  by  holding  him  for  a  few  seconds 
as  shown  in  Figure  92.  Then  quickly  lay  him  in 
the  position  shown  in  Figure  93  with  a  folded 
blanket  or  coat  under  his  chest.  Place  the  hands 
on  either  side  of  the  back  over  the  lower  ribs.  Throw 
the  weight  of  the  body  steadily  downward  on  the 
hands  and  drive  the  air  out  of  the  lungs.  Take  the 
pressure  off  the  body  without  lifting  the  hands  and 
allow  the  air  to  come  into  the  lungs.  Repeat  about 
fifteen  times  a  minute.  Keep  the  patient  as  warm 


ACCIDENTS  129 

as  possible.  The  artificial  breathing  should  be 
kept  up  for  an  hour  or  more  if  the  patient  does  not 
revive  sooner. 

Poison  ivy.  Bathe  the  affected  parts  in  a  weak 
solution  of  potassium  permanganate.  This  can  be 
made  up  by  dissolving  a  small  crystal  of  the  perman- 
ganate in  a  basin  of  water.  This  medicine  stains 
the  skin,  and  when  the  face  is  affected  it  may  be  ad- 
visable to  consult  a  physician  about  another  remedy. 

Poisoning.  Bottles  that  contain  poisons  should 
not  be  kept  among  medicines,  and  it  is  well  to  paste 
on  these  bottles  strips  of  sandpaper,  so  that  they 
can  be  recognized  even  in  the  dark.  When  a  poison 
has  been  taken  by  accident,  a  physician  should  be 
called  as  quickly  as  possible.  In  the  meantime  the 
following  remedies  may  be  used: 

Carbolic  add.  Use  alcohol  (whiskey,  brandy,  or 
rum  will  do),  oil,  or  milk. 

Bichlorid  of  mercury  (also  called  mercuric  chlorid 
and  corrosive  sublimate).  Give  milk  or  white  of 
egg.  Cause  vomiting  by  giving  a  tablespoonful  of 
mustard  in  a  glass  of  warm  water,  warm  salt  water, 
or  large  quantities  of  hot  water.  Tickle  the  throat 
with  a  feather  or  thrust  the  finger  into  the  throat 
to  bring  on  the  vomiting. 

Arsenic.  Cause  vomiting,  and  if  any  medicine 
that  contains  iron  is  at  hand,  give  it.  The  poison 
in  Fowler's  solution,  Paris  green,  and  Rough-on- 
Rats  is  arsenic. 


130  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

Opium,  laudanum,  nightshade,  and  Jimson  weed 
poisoning.  Give  strong  coffee  or  ammonia.  Keep 
the  patient  awake  by  walking  him  about,  slapping 
him,  or  throwing  cold  water  over  him  if  necessary. 
Cause  vomiting. 

Questions  :  i.  What  danger  must  be  guarded  against  when 
a  bone  of  one  of  the  limbs  is  broken?  2.  Tell  what  should 
be  done  in  case  the  clothing  takes  fire.  3.  In  case  of  faint- 
ing. 4.  How  should  you  treat  a  person  who  was  suffering 
from  apparent  drowning  or  gas  suffocation?  5.  Tell  what 
should  be  done  in  case  of  poisoning  with  some  of  the  more 
common  poisons. 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Show  the  class  how 
to  carry  on  artificial  respiration.  Write  to  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture at  Washington  for  a  bulletin  on  poisonous  plants,  and  teach 
the  children  to  know  and  to  avoid  the  poisonous  plants  of  the 
region. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-SEVEN 

SOME  SIMPLE  EXERCISES  FOR  USE  IN  SCHOOLS 

IN  this  chapter  are  some  simple  exercises  that  may 
be  given  in  school  when  the  pupils  have  become 
tired  of  study  and  their  muscles  have  become 
cramped  from  sitting  for  some  time  in  their  seats. 
The  teacher  should  select  exercises  so  that  each  day 
the  muscles  of  the  whole  body  will  be  brought  into 
play,  and  the  school  should  be  trained  to  go  through 
them  in  a  quiet,  orderly  manner,  so  that  little  time 
will  be  lost  from  the  lessons.  The  windows  should 
be  thrown  wide  open  before  beginning  the  exercises 
(page  49).  In  warm  weather  some  teachers  may 
prefer  to  give  the  exercises  outdoors. 

Position  while  exercising.  The  most  impor- 
tant point  is  the  position  of  the  head.  The  head 
should  be  stretched  up  as  high  as  possible,  as  though 
the  body  were  hanging  by  the  back  of  the  top  of 
the  head.  This  will  straighten  out  the  spinal  col- 
umn; hold  the  neck  straight  with  the  chin  close  to 
the  neck,  and  lift  the  ribs  up  off  the  lungs  (see  Fig- 
ure 53).  In  the  following  exercises,  whenever  the 
command  "Position!"  is  given,  it  means  that  the 
head  is  to  be  held  in  this  way,  with  the  hands  at  the 
sides.  The  position  for  resting  is  to  stand  with 
the  feet  even  and  wide  apart,  and  the  arms  crossed 
behind  the  back  and  resting  on  the  backs  of  the 
hips.1  The  trunk  and  head  should  be  held  erect  but 

1  If  preferred  the  position  shown  in  Figure  57  may  be  used 
in  resting. 


132 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


not  rigid  while  resting.    The  command  "In  place!" 
means   to   take   this   position,    and   the   command 
"Rest!"    means  to  remain  in  the  resting  position 
until  the  next  command  is  given.     The  command 
"In  place,  rest!"  should  be  given  after  each  exercise. 
Commands.    There  are  always  two  parts  in  the 
commands;   one  part  tells  what  to  do,  and  the  other 
part  tells  when  to  do  it.     In  the  com- 
mands   for    these    exercises    the   parts 
which    tell   when    to    do    a    thing   are 
printed  in  black  letters.     For  example, 
the  command,  "Hands  on  hips,  place, " 
means  to  place  your  hands  on  your  hips 
when  the   teacher   says   "Place!"     In 
some   of    the    exercises    the    complete 
commands  and  counting  have  not  been 
given.    The  teacher  will  easily  under- 
stand what  these  should  be  and  will 
give  them. 
A.    Arm  raisings. 

EXERCISE  i.  Arm  raisings  through  front  hori- 
zontals to  high  over  the  head  (Fig.  86). 

Raise  the  arms  high  over  the  head,  knuckles 
leading  (i.  e.  the  backs  of  the  hands  going  before 
the  palms),  through  a  front  horizontal  position. 
Keep  the  arms  and  fingers  stretched  out  stiff  and 
straight.  The  teacher  should  count  i  as  the  arms 
are  raised,  and  2  as  they  are  lowered.  Keep  the 
head  stretched  up. 


FIG.  86. 


SIMPLE  EXERCISES  FOR   USE  IN  SCHOOLS      133 

Command:  Position. 

Arm  raisings  through  front  horizontals  to  high  over 
the  head,  up  —  down. 

(Teacher  counts:) 

i,  2;   i,  2;   i,  2;   i,  2;   i,  2;   i,  2;   i,  2;   i,  2.1 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE   2.     Arm  raisings  through  front  hori- 
zontals to  high  over  the  head,  rising  on  the  toes. 

The  same  as  Exercise  i,  but 
rise  on  the  toes  as  the  arms 
are  raised  and  bring  the  heels 
down  as  the  arms  descend. 

Command:  Position. 

Arm  raisings  through  front 
horizontals  to  high  over  the  head, 
rising  on  toes,  up  —  down. 

i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2; 
i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2. 

In  place,  rest. 

•EXERCISE  3.  Arm  raisings 
through  side  horizontals  to  high  over  the  head 
(Fig.  87).  Directions  as  for  Exercise  i,  but  raise 
the  arms  through  a  side  horizontal  position,  bring- 
ing them  up  over  the  head  with  the  palms  forward, 
thumbs  touching.  Do  not  bend  the  arms  at  the  elbows. 

Command:  Position. 

Arm  raisings  through  side  horizontals  to  high  over 
the  head,  up  —  down. 

1  If  preferred,  the  teacher  may  count  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8. 

9 


134  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

I,  2;    I,  2;    I,  2;    I,  2;    I,  2;    I,  2;    I,  2;    I,  2. 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  4.  Arm  raisings  through  front  hori- 
zontals, descending  through  side  horizontals. 

Raise  the  arms  as  in  Exercise  i, 
and  bring  them  down  as  in  Exer- 
cise 3.    Vary  the  exercise  by  some- 
times rising  on  the  toes. 
Command:  Position. 
Arm  raisings  through  front  hori- 
zontals,   descending     through     side 
horizontals,  up  —  down. 

i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2; 

FIG.  88.  Ij  2;  Ij  2' 

In  place,  rest. 

These  arm  exercises  can  be  varied  by  having  the 
pupils  go  through  them  with  either  the  right  or  left 
arm,  with  both  arms,  or  with  the  right  and  left  arms 
alternately. 

B.  Leg  Exercises. 

I.   Leg  Raisings. 

EXERCISE  5.  Leg  raising  to  front  horizontal 
(Fig.  88). 

The  leg  should  be  brought  forward  and  upward 
with  the  toe  pointed  down  to  bring  the  foot  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  a  straight  line  with  the  leg.  Do  not 
bend  the  leg  at  the  knee.  Head  and  trunk  erect; 
i.e.  "stand  tall." 

Command:  Position,  hands  on  hips,  place. 


SIMPLE  EXERCISES  FOR   USE  IN  SCHOOLS    135 

*Leg  raising  to  front  horizontal,   right   leg,   up  — 
down. 

i,  2;  i,  2/1,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2. 


g,  up.1 

i,  2;  (repeat  eight  times). 

/^  ^/<zce,  rest. 

EXERCISE  6.     Leg  raising  to  side  horizontal. 

Count  and  position  of  leg  and  foot  as  in  Exercise 
5,  but  raise  leg  to  the  side.  Do  not  let  the  body 
lean  over  to  the  side. 

Command:  Position,  hands  on  hips, 
place. 

Leg  raising  to  side  horizontal,  up  — 
down. 

EXERCISE  7.  Leg  raising  to  back  hori- 
zontal. 

Count  and  position  of  leg  and  foot 
as  in  Exercise  5,  but  raise  leg  to  the 
back. 

Command:  Position,  hands  on  hips,  place. 

Leg  raising  to  back  horizontal,  up  —  down. 

II.   Leg  Flexions  (Bendings). 

EXERCISE  8.  Leg  flexion  forward  (Fig.  89). 
Position  of  toe  as  in  Exercise  5.  Leg  from  knee 
down  should  be  vertical.  Raise  knee  toward  chin 
as  far  as  possible,  keeping  the  body  and  head  erect. 

1  This  command  should  be  given  instead  of  the  last  three 
counts  while  the  right  leg  is  being  raised.  The  exercise  will  not 
then  be  stopped  while  the  command  is  being  given. 


FlG-89- 


136  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

Command:  Position. 
Hands  on  hips,  place, 
Leg  flexion  forward,  right  leg,  up  —  down. 
i,  2;  (repeat  eight  times.) 
Left  leg,  up  —  down. 
i,  2;  (repeat  eight  times.) 
In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  9.   Leg  flexion  backward. 
Count  and  position  of  foot  as  in  Exercise  5.    Bend 
the  leg  backward  at  the  knee.     Raise  the  foot  as 
high    as    possible,    keeping    the 
knees  close  together  and  even. 
Command:  Position. 
Hands  on  hips,  place. 
Leg  flexion  backward,  right  leg, 
up  —  down. 
III.   Squat. 

EXERCISE    10.     Half    squat, 
with  arms  to  front  or  side  hori- 
FlG-  9°-  zontals  (Fig.  90). 

Lower  the  body,  raising  the  heels,  bending 
only  at  the  knees  and  hips.  The  knees  should 
be  turned  out  so  that  they  will  be  in  a  straight 
line  with  the  toes.  As  the  body  descends,  raise 
the  arms  to  front  horizontal  (extended  straight 
out  in  front,  palms  down),  or  to  side  horizontal 
(extended  out  at  sides);  now  lower  the  arms  to 
the  sides  as  legs  are  straightened.  Head  and  trunk 
erect. 


SIMPLE   EXERCISES  FOR    USE  IN  SCHOOLS    137 

Command:  Position. 

Half  squat,  with  arms  front  (or  side)  horizontals, 
squat. 

i  (lower  body  and  raise  arms),  2  (lower  arms  and 
raise  body) ;  (repeat  eight  times.) 

In  place,  rest. 

C.  Body  flexions. 

EXERCISE  n.  Trunk  forward  flexion  (Fig.  93). 
Place  the  hands  on  the  hips,  and  bend  the  body  for- 
ward. Keep  the  legs  straight  at  the 
knees  and  the  head  in  a  straight  line 
with  the  trunk,  the  body  bending 
only  at  the  hips. 

The  count  for  body  movements 
should  be  slower  than  for  limb  move- 
ments 

Command:  Position. 

Hands  on  hips,  place. 

Trunk  forward,  bend,  upward,  raise.  FlG-  93> 

i,  2;  (repeat  four  times.) 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  12.  Trunk  sidewise  flexion.  Position 
as  for  Exercise  n.  Do  not  let  the  head  bend  over 
toward  the  shoulders. 

Bend  alternately  to  the  right  and  to  the  left. 

Command:  Position. 

Hands  on  hips,  place. 

Trunk  sidewise,  bend,  upward,  raise. 

i,  2;  (repeat  four  times.) 


138  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  13.    Trunk  backward  flexion. 

Position  and  directions  as  for  Exercise  u.  Bend 
the  body  backward.  Do  not  let  the  legs  bend  at 
the  knees. 

Command:  Position. 

Hands  on  hips,  place. 

Trunk  backward,  bend,  upward,  stretch. 

i,  2;  (repeat  four  times.) 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  14.  Alternate  trunk  flexions.  Bend 
forward,  then  to  the  right,  then  to  the  left,  and  then 
backward. 

Command:  Position. 

Hands  on  hips,  place. 

Alternate  trunk  bendings,  bend. 

i,  2;  (bend  each  way  and  repeat  once.) 

In  place,  rest. 

The  exercises  in  bending  may  be  varied,  by  clasp- 
ing the  hands  together  and  placing  them  on  top  of 
the  head  instead  of  on  the  hips. 

D.  Breathing  exercises. 

EXERCISE  15.  Breathing  exercise,  hands  at  sides. 
In  all  breathing  exercises  stand  tall  (page  83). 

Inhale  and  exhale  slowly  and  steadily  through 
the  nostrils.  Keep  the  head  and  body  erect  as 
the  air  is  exhaled.  At  the  command  inhale, 
take  in  a  full  breath,  and  hold  until  the  command 
exhale. 


SIMPLE  EXERCISES  FOR   USE  IN  SCHOOLS     139 

Command:  Position. 

Breathing  exercise  with  hands  at  sides,  inhale  — 
exhale  (repeat  four  times). 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  16.     Breathing  exercise,  hands  on  ribs. 

Place  the  hands  over  the  lower  ribs,  and  as  the 
air  is  exhaled,  press  on  the  ribs  with  the  hands. 

Command :  Position,  hands  on  ribs,  place. 

Breathing  exercise,  hands  on  ribs,  inhale  —  ex- 
hale (repeat  four  times). 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  17.  Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised 
through  front  horizontals  high  over  the  head.  As 
the  air  is  inhaled,  slowly  raise  the  arms  as  in  Exer- 
cise i,  and  let  them  come  down  again  slowly  as  the 
air  is  exhaled.  Keep  the  arms  and  fingers  stretched 
out  straight  and  stiff. 

Command:  Position. 

Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised  through  front  hori- 
zontals to  high  over  the  head,  inhale  —  exhale 
(repeat  four  times). 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  18.  Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised 
through  side  horizontals  to  high  over  the  head.  Posi- 
tion and  movement  of  arms  as  in  Exercise  2.  Raise 
the  arms  as  the  air  is  inhaled  and  lower  them  as  the 
air  is  exhaled.  Head,  arms,  and  fingers  stretched  up. 

Command:  Position. 

Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised  through  side  hori- 


140  PRIMER   OF  tfYGIENE 

zontal  to  high  over  the  head,  inhale— exhale  (re- 
peat four  times). 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  19.  Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised 
through  front  horizontals  and  lowered  through  side 
horizontals.  The  same  as  Exercise  17,  but  move 
the  arms  as  in  Exercise  3. 

EXERCISE  20.  Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised 
through  front  horizontals  high  over  the  head,  rising 
on  toes.  The  same  as  Exercise  17,  but  rise  on  the 
toes  as  the  air  is  inhaled  and  slowly  bring  the  heels 
down  as  the  air  is  exhaled. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-EIGHT 


DISEASE  GERMS 

A  PERSON  who  lives  with  a 
consumptive  sometimes 
catches  consumption.  A 
man  takes  care  of  a  neigh- 
bor who  has  typhoid  fever, 
and  he  too  takes  typhoid 
fever.  A  child  brings  mea- 
sles or  whooping  .cough  to  FIG  ^  Disease  germs  are 

School,       and      SOOn      great     so    small   that    they    can    be 
numbers     of     the     children     seen  only  through  a  powerful 

microscope. 

have  the  same  disease. 

Why  are  some  diseases  "  catching  "?  What  is  there 
about  a  person  who  has  consumption,  typhoid  fever, 
or  measles  that  should  cause  another  person  to 
take  the  disease?  What  passes  from  a  sick  person 
that  causes  other  persons  to  become  sick,  and  how 
does  it  pass?  Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  the  answers 
to  these  questions. 

Catching  diseases  caused  by  germs  that  are 
passed  from  one  person  to  another.  All  catching 
diseases  are  caused  by  germs,  and  when  a  person 
catches  a  disease,  he  does  so  by  getting  germs  into 
his  body.  Every  case  of  smallpox  is  caused  by 
germs  that  came  from  some  other  case  of  smallpox. 
All  cases  of  measles  and  mumps  are  caused  by 
germs  that  come  from  other  cases  of  these  diseases. 
All  the  many  million  cases  of  catching  diseases  that 

are  found  in  our  country  each  year  are  caused  by 

141 


142 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


germs  that  come  from  other  cases  of  these  diseases. 
Get  it  firmly  fixed  in  your  mind  that  the  germs 
that  make  us  sick  do  not  fall  from  the  clouds  or 
spring  up  from  the  earth,  but  come  from  the  people 
who  are  sick  with  germ  diseases. 

Disease  germs  very  small.     We  do  not  see  the 
germ  as  it  passes  from  the  person  who  gives  us 

grip  or  measles.  This  is  be- 
cause disease  germs  are  so 
very  small  that  we  can  see 
them  only  with  a  powerful 
microscope.  They  are  so 
tiny  that  millions  of  them 
can  swim  in  a  single  drop 
of  water.  Even  when  there 
are  hundreds  of  millions  of 
FIG.  95.  If  material  from  a  them  on  the  hands  or  on  a 
rotten  apple  is  packed  into  a  drinking  cup,  the  hands  or 

hole  in  a  sound  apple,  the  rot, 

which  is  a  catching  disease,  the  cup  may  yet  seem  to 
will  spread  through  the  whole  be  perfectly  clean.  We  can 

apple. 

see    a    street    car    coming 

and  get  out  of  its  way,  but  germs  we  must  learn  to 
escape  without  seeing  them. 
Some    diseases    that    are    caused    by    germs. 

Among  the  diseases  that  are  caused  by  germs  are 
colds,  catarrh,  diphtheria,  pneumonia,  and  con- 
sumption; typhoid  fever,  dysentery,  cholera,  and 
all  the  diseases  of  the  intestine  from  which  so  many 
little  children  die;  boils,  carbuncles,  blood  poison- 


DISEASE   GERMS  143 

ing,  tonsillitis,  appendicitis,  and  inflamed  sores  and 
wounds;  malaria,  lockjaw,  meningitis,  and  leprosy; 
whooping  cough,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  chicken 
pox,  smallpox,  and  mumps  —  all  these  and  many 
other  diseases  are  caused  by  germs.  From  reading 
this  list  you  can  easily  understand  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  sickness  that  is  in  the  world  would  dis- 
appear if  the  spread  of  disease  germs  from  one 
person  to  another  could  be  stopped. 

Questions  :  i.  How  does  one  person  catch  a  disease  from 
another  ?  2.  Where  do  the  germs  that  cause  typhoid  fever, 
diphtheria,  smallpox,  and  other  catching  diseases  come 
from?  3.  Why  do  we  not  see  disease  germs?  4.  Name 
some  diseases  that  are  caused  by  germs.  5.  Which  one  of 
these  diseases  have  you  had  ?  6.  Have  you  any  of  them 
now  ? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Find  out  how  many 
of  the  pupils'  homes  Have  been  visited  by  some  serious  disease 
like  typhoid  fever  or  diphtheria,  and  in  how  many  cases  the  dis- 
ease has  been  allowed  to  spread  to  other  members  of  the  family. 
Drive  home  the  idea  that  disease  germs  are  organisms  as  definite 
as  cows  and  horses;  that  every  case  of  disease  caused  by  them 
is  due  to  taking  the  germs  into  the  body ;  and  that  when  one  mem- 
ber of  the  family  has  a  disease  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  other 
members  of  the  family  to  contract  it. 

Make  a  small,  deep  hole  in  the  side  of  an  apple  and  pack  into  it 
material  from  a  rotten  apple.  Lay  the  apple  aside  for  a  couple  of 
days  and  then  cut  it  open.  Show  the  class  how  the  rot  has  entered 
the  sound  flesh  of  the  apple. 

Send  to  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  at  the  state 
capital  for  bulletins,  which  will  be  found  to  contain  splendid  mate- 
rial for  supplementing  this  and  subsequent  lessons.  Distribute 
these  bulletins  to  parents  in  case  a  communicable  disease  appears 
in  your  school. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-NINE 

TYPHOID   FEVER 

WHEREVER  man  makes  his  home,  there  is  typhoid 
fever  found.  In  the  United  States  alone  it  attacks 
every  year  from  a  quarter  to  a  half  million  people, 
and  not  an  hour  passes  that  some  home  is  not  left 
in  sorrow  because  of  it.  Yet  the  cause  of.  typhoid 
fever  is  well  known.  We  know  how  the  germs 
spread  and  how  to  prevent  the  disease.  It  is  not 
necessary  for  us  to  sit  idly  by  and  year  after  year 
see  it  pass  through  the  land  striking  down  those 
who  cross  its  path.  . 

The  typhoid  germ.  Typhoid  germs  leave  the 
body  in  the  wastes  from  the  intestines  and  kidneys 
and  sometimes  in  the  sweat.  They  can  live  for 
some  time  (probably  several  weeks)  in  water,  and 
it  is  thought  that  they  can  remain  alive  for  several 
months  in  the  soil.  They  can  live  frozen  in  ice  for 
weeks,  and  in  milk  and  some  cooked  foods  they 
are  able  not  only  to  live  but  to  grow  and  multiply. 
They  will  die  if  they  are  thoroughly  dried,  and 
they  can  be  killed  with  hot  water. 

How  typhoid  germs  are  scattered  about. 
Typhoid  germs  have  no  legs  to  walk  about  with  and 
no  wings  with  which  they  can  fly  through  the  air. 
Everywhere  they  go  they  must  be  carried,  but  they 
are  so  very  small  that  they  can  be  carried  about  in 
many  ways  that  we  do  not  think  of.  The  wastes 
from  a  typhoid  patient  may  be  thrown  out  on  the 

ground  and  the  germs  washed  into  a  stream.    Miles 

144 


TYPHOID  FEVER  145 

below  where  this  is  done,  people  may  use  the  water 
from  the  stream  and  thus  get  the  disease.  Flies 
may  walk  Over  the  wastes  from  2J9  deatks 
a  typhoid  patient  and  carry  on 
their  feet  thousands  of  the  germs 
to  food  or  to  dishes.  A  person 
who  is  suffering  with  a  light  at- 
tack of  the  disease  may  handle 
milk  and  cause  a  great  epidemic. 
Those  who  are  sick  with  typhoid 
fever  and  those  who  take  care  of 
typhoid  patients  are  almost  sure 
to  get  the  germs  on  their  hands. 
These  germs  may  then  get  into 
food;  they  may  be  left  on  pump 
handles  or  well  buckets,  on  door 
knobs  or  wash  basins. .  In  any  of 
these  .or  a  hundred  other  ways 
they  may  get  on  the  hands  and 
into  the  mouths  of  other  persons.  FIG.  98.  In  1906  Cin- 
Destroying  the  germs  that  cinnati  used  unfiltered 

water  from   the  Ohio 

come  from  those  who  have  River  and  had  239 
typhoid  fever.  Every  one  of  the  deaths  from  typhoid 
thousands  and  thousands  of  per-  ^  J^S,  and 
sons  who  have  typhoid  fever  in  the  deaths  from  ty- 
our  country  every  year  is  sick  PJ10^  fever  ^PP*1 
because  he  has  swallowed  ty- 
phoid germs  that  have  come  from  some  other 
person.  To  check  the  spread  of  the  disease, 


146  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

therefore,  we  must  keep  the  germs  from  becoming 
scattered  about.  Every  case  of  typhoid  fever 
should  be  treated  in  the  same  way  that  a  case 
of  smallpox  or  of  diphtheria  is  treated.  No  one 
should  be  about  the  patient  except  those  who 
are  taking  care  of  him.  All  wastes  that  may 
contain  the  germs  should  be  carefully  destroyed 
(page  169).  No  flies  should  be  allowed  near  the 
patient,  for  they  may  carry  the  germs  about. 
Those  who  take  care  of  the  patient  should  wash  their 
hands  frequently  in  some  disinfectant  that  will 
kill  germs,  and  the  dishes  and  drinking  glasses  used 
in  the  sickroom  should  be  kept  by  themselves  and 
boiled.  The  bedclothes  should  be  changed  often 
and  boiled  as  soon  as  they  are  taken  from  the  bed, 
and  it  should  be  remembered  that  any  one  who 
touches  these  clothes  will  probably  get  germs  on 
his  hands.  It  is  only  by  keeping  the  germs  from 
typhoid  patients  from  becoming  scattered  about 
that  we  can  hope  to  stop  the  spread  of  the  disease. 
Typhoid  germ  carriers.  When  a  typhoid  fever 
patient  gets  better,  he  should,  if  possible,  be  exam- 
ined to  see  that  he  is  free  from  germs  before  he  again 
lives  and  eats  with  other  members  of  the  family. 
This  is  important,  because  just  as  a  diphtheria  pa- 
tient often  has  the  germs  of  the  disease  in  his  throat 
for  several  weeks  or  months  after  he  is  well,  so  in 
some  cases  typhoid  fever  patients  carry  the  germs 
for  weeks,  months,  or  even  years  after  they  have 


TYPHOID  FEVER  147 

recovered  from  the  disease.  These  germ  carriers, 
because  they  are  going  about  everywhere  among 
other  people,  are  more  dangerous  than  are  those 
who  are  really  sick  with  the  disease,  and  many 
cases  of  typhoid  fever  have  been  traced  to  them. 


polluted  water., 
impure  milk- 
unclean  food 
unwashed  bandsr 

FIG.  97.  By  these  paths  typhoid  germs  reach  the  mouth.  In  the 
community  in  which  you  live,  how  could  each  path  be  blocked  ? 

Protecting    ourselves    from    typhoid    germs. 

There  are  yet  many  cases  of  typhoid  fever  in  our 
country  in  which  the  germs  are  not  destroyed,  and  it 
is  certain  that  we  have  many  germ  carriers  among 
us.  We  must  therefore  take  care  to  guard  ourselves 
from  typhoid  germs  that  have  become  scattered 
abroad.  These  germs  are  likely  to  reach  us  in 
water,  and  if  there  is  no  other  way  of  getting 
water  that  is  considered  safe  by  physicians,  we 
should  boil  our  drinking  water.  Typhoid  germs 
are  carried  about  by  flies,  and  houses  should  be 
screened  and  the  breeding  places  of  flies  removed 
(page  170).  Food  that  has  been  exposed  to  .flies 


148  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

or  handled  by  the  public  is  unsafe,  and  infected 
milk  is  the  cause  of  a  great  many  cases  of  typhoid 
fever. 


FIG.  98.  In  hilly  and  rocky  regions,  wells  and  springs  may  be  in- 
fected by  germs  that  are  washed  for  long  distances  over  layers  of 
rock.  In  such  regions  the  well  should  be  on  higher  ground  than  any- 
thing ^about  the  place  that  may  pollute  it. 

In  general,  typhoid  germs  reach  us  from  the 
wastes  and  hands  of  typhoid  patients  and  germ 
carriers,  and  we  must  guard  the  paths  along  which 
the  germs  can  travel  to  us  from  these  persons. 

The  germs  of  other  intestinal  diseases  spread  in 
the  same  ways  that  typhoid  germs  are  spread. 
Dysentery  (flux),  diarrhoea,  and  cholera  infantum 
(summer  complaint)  are  caused  by  germs,  and  the 
germs  of  all  these  diseases  are  spread  in  about  the 
same  ways  that  typhoid  germs  are  spread.  Dysen- 
tery is  a  most  dangerous  disease,  and  cases  of  it 
should  be  carefully  looked  after  to  keep  the  germs 


TYPHOID  FEVER  149 

from  reaching  other  persons.  The  intestinal  diseases 
from  which  so  many  young  children  die  in  hot 
weather  are  caused  to  a  great  extent  by  germs  taken 
in  impure  milk,  but  these  germs  can  also  be  carried 
by  water  or  by  flies.  A  little  baby  should  be  kept 
away  from  other  children  that  have  the  disease. 

Questions  :  i .  How  do  typhoid  germs  leave  the  body  ? 
2.  Are  typhoid  germs  hard  to  kill?  3.  What  are  some  of 
the  ways  in  which  they  may  be  scattered  ?  4.  What  can 
we  do  to  keep  the  disease  from  spreading  ?  5.  What  are 
some  of  the  ways  in  which  we  can  protect  ourselves  from 
typhoid  germs  ?  6.  What  other  disease  germs  are  spread  in 
the  same  way  as  typhoid  germs  ? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Discuss  with  the 
class  the  Rules  for  the  Care  of  Typhoid  Patients  issued  by  your 
City  or  State  Board  of  Health.  Show  that  it  is  cheaper  to  use  dis- 
infectants liberally  in  case  of  typhoid  fever  than  it  is  to  allow  other 
members  of  the  family  to  become  infected,  as  is  often  done.  Find 
out  the  chief  sources  of  infection  in  your  community  and  discuss 
methods  of  avoiding  infection.  Teachers  who  live  in  rural  com- 
munities should  show  how  wells  and  springs  are  often  infected  by 
washing  clothes  where  the  drainage  reaches  them  or  by  the  hands 
of  some  one  who  is  taking  care  of  a  typhoid  patient.  By  multiplying 
the  number  of  typhoid  deaths  in  your  city  or  state  by  8  or  9, 
the  approximate  number  of  cases  of  the  disease  will  be  obtained. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  direct  cost  of  the  average  case  in  loss  of 
time  and  medical  fees  is  $240. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY 

TUBERCULOSIS   (CONSUMPTION) 


FIG.  99.  An  open-air  school  for  children  who  have  tuberculosis. 
Most  of  the  children  in  these  schools  improve  in  health  at  once. 
(After  a  photograph  in  The  Survey,  March  5,  1910.) 

TUBERCULOSIS  has  spread  itself  through  the  whole 
world.  In  the  warm  tropics  the  people  fall  before 
it,  and  in  the  frost-bound  regions  of  the  earth  it  is 
well  known.  It  finds  its  way  into  the  mansions  of 
the  rich  and  it  enters  the  cottages  of  the  poor.  It 
causes  the  death  of  one  seventh  of  the  human  race, 
and  in  our  own  country  one  person  in  every  ten 
dies  of  it.  The  germ  that  causes  this  disease  may 
grow  almost  anywhere  in  the  body,  and  we  may 
have  tuberculosis  of  the  bones,  of  the  kidneys,  of 
the  intestines,  or  of  any  other  part  of  the  body.  By 
far  the  most  common  form  of  the  disease,  however, 


TUBERCUL  OSIS  1 5 1 

is  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs,  or  consumption.  This 
disease  has  long  been  called  the  Great  White  Plague, 
and  the  germ  that  causes  it  has  been  well  named 
the  Captain  of  the  Men  of  Death. 

Tuberculosis  an  expensive  disease.  Con- 
sumption is  a  long,  lingering  disease,  and  it  often 
attacks  people  at  the  time  of  life  when  they  are 
earning  a  living  not  only  for  themselves  but  for 
others  as  well.  For  these  two  reasons  it  is  one  of 
the  greatest  of  all  causes  of  poverty.1  Exactly  how 
much  this  disease  costs  our  country  in  money  it  is 
not  possible  to  say,  but  one  estimate  places  the 
figure  at  a  billion  dollars  a  year. 

The  germ  of  tuberculosis.  The  germ  of  tu- 
berculosis withstands  drying  longer  than  most 
germs,  and  in  a  damp  or  dark  house  it  sometimes 
remains  alive  for  months.  It  attacks  many  animals 
as  well  as  man,  and  cattle  especially  suffer  from  this 
disease.  It  grows  slowly,  and  usually  the  germ  has 
been  in  the  body  for  months  before  the  disease 
shows  itself.  It  gets  into  the  body  either  by  being 
breathed  into  the  lungs  or  by  being  swallowed  and 
carried  through  the  body  in  the  blood. 

1  In  the  city  of  Washington  it  was  found  that  about  one  half  of 
all  the  poverty  in  the  city  was  due  to  sickness,  and  that  as  a  cause 
of  poverty  consumption  was  far  more  important  than  any  other 
disease.  Every  day  in  the  United  States  tuberculosis  makes  orphans 
of  over  two  hundred  children  under  twelve  years  of  age,  and  it  has 
been  found  that  out  of  every  ten  children  in  the  county  homes  for 
children  in  Indiana,  four  are  there  because  one  or  both  parents  have 
died  or  have  become  unable  to  work  because  of  consumption. 


152 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


Early  treatment 


Tuberculosis  germs  spread  from  consumptives 
and  in  milk.  Tuberculosis  germs  do  not  grow  in 
the  fields  and  pastures.  They  are  not 
found  in  the  rain  or  on  the  leaves  of 
the  trees.  They  come  from  the  people 
and  from  the  cattle  that  have  tuber- 
culosis, and  they  get  into  our  bodies 
by  way  of  the  mouth  or  the  nose. 
This  means  that  if  we  are  to  check 
the  disease  we  must  keep  the  germs 
from  spreading  from  the  people  and 
the  cattle  that  are  carrying  them. 

How    tuberculosis    germs     are 
spread   from   consumptives.     Mil- 


Late  treatment 


I 


FIG.  loo.  Of  con- 
sumptives     who 

begin    treatment  HOns  of  germs  are  coughed  up  in  a 

ar  y  m     e    ^s-  jav  ^y  a  consumptive  and  they  are 

cover  or  have  the  always  in  his  mouth.    If  the  patient 

disease   arrested.  js  a  careiess  one  the  germs  will  -surely 

Of  those  who  be-  ...  .  ' 

gin  treatment  in  get  on  nls  hands  and  clothes.     Ihey 

the  late  stages  of  are  left  on  drinking  cups  and  dishes 

CJn  loo^ecover  *^at  are  use<^  ^Y  consumptives,  they 
or  have  the  disease  may  be  in  food  or  milk  that  a  con- 
arrested.  (From  sumptive  has  handled,  or  they  may 

the  experience  of  ,  .,      .  ,         ,       -, 

the  state   Sana-  be  left  on  pencils,  books,  door  knobs, 

torium  at  Rutland,  or  on  anything  that  he  has  touched. 

Massachusetts.}.  If  the  sputum   ^  not  carefully  de- 
stroyed, the  germs  will  be  carried  about  by  flies,  they 

will  get  into  drinking  water,  they  will  blow  about 

in  dust,  and  in  many  ways  they  will  reach  other 


TUBERCUL  OS  IS  1 5  3 

persons  and  start  the  disease  in  them.  When  a 
consumptive  coughs  he  may  send  out  into  the  air 
for  several  feet  droplets  of  saliva  that  are  full  of 
germs.  A  consumptive  therefore  should  hold  a 
handkerchief  or  paper  napkin  before  his  mouth 
when  he  coughs,  lest  some  other  person  breathe 
in  the  droplets  and  the  germs  that  fly  from  his 
mouth. 

Spitting  a  most  dangerous  habit.  Spitting  on 
floors,  sidewalks,  or  similar  places  is  a  habit  that 
is  most  dangerous  to  the  health  of  a  community. 
When  tuberculosis  germs  are  left  in  such  a  place, 
they  are  sure  to  be  carried  into  houses  on  shoes 
and  trailing  skirts,  they  are  blown  about  in  the 
air  in  dust,  they  are  carried  by  flies,  and  in  many 
other  ways  they  will  be  spread  where  they  may 
cause  sickness  and  death.  Not  more  than  half  the 
people  who  have  tuberculosis  germs  in  their  mouths 
know  it,  and  no  one  should  spit  on  the  sidewalk, 
in  the  street  car,  or  on  the  floor  of  a  public  build- 
ing or  private  house. 

Germs  from  a  consumptive  should  be  des- 
troyed. The  first  great  point  in  preventing  the 
spread  of  germs  from  a  consumptive  is  to  destroy 
the  sputum.  It  should  be  received  in  a  pasteboard 
cup  or  on  a  piece  of  cloth.  This  should  then  be 
burned,  and  not  left  where  flies  can  get  to  it  or 
where  the  germs  may  become  scattered  about  in 
other  ways.  The  dishes  of  a  consumptive  should 


154  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

be  kept  separate  from  those  of  the  rest  of  the  family, 
and  they  should  be  boiled  after  each  time  that  they 
are  used.  A  consumptive  should  wash  his  hands 
occasionally  in  a  disinfectant  (page  169)  to  free 
them  from  germs.  His  handkerchiefs  should  be 
soaked  in  a  disinfectant  or  kept  in  water  until  they 
can  be  boiled,  and  his  clothes  should  be  boiled  be- 
fore they  are  washed  with  other  clothing.  A  con- 
sumptive always  swallows  some  of  the  germs,  and 
these  are  in  the  intestinal  wastes.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  to  keep  these  wastes  covered  from  flies, 
to  prevent  their  polluting  drinking  water,  and  to 
guard  against  their  getting  scattered  on  the  earth 
about  the  homes  of  men. 

Tuberculosis  germs  in  milk.  A  considerable 
number  of  cattle  have  tuberculosis,  and  it  is  now 
known  that  many  persons,  especially  children,  get 
the  disease  from  milk.  All  dairy  cattle  should  be 
examined  to  see  whether  or  not  they  have  the  dis- 
ease. When  milk  is  used  from  cattle  that  have  not 
been  examined,  it  is  best  to  heat  the  milk  to  kill 
the  germs  in  it.  This  will  not  only  help  to  check 
tuberculosis,  but  will  prevent  a  considerable  amount 
of  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  and  other 
diseases  that  are  spread  by  milk. 

The  importance  of  fresh  air  in  the  treatment 
of  consumption.  Every  one  should  understand 
how  important  fresh  air  is  in  building  up  the  body 
so  that  it  can  resist  germs.  There  is  little  hope  for 


TUBERCULOSIS 


155 


the  consumptive  who  shuts  himself  up  in  the  house 
and  sleeps  with  his  windows  tightly  closed.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  open-air  schools  that  are  run  in 
some  cities  for  children  who  have  tuberculosis,  and 
in  sanatoria  where  the  patients  to  a  great  extent 


FIGS.  ioi  and  102.     Good  food,  fresh  air,  and  rest  are  very  important 
in  the  treatment  of  consumption. 

live  and  sleep  in  the  open  air,  many  consumptives 
are  being  cured  of  the  disease.  Every  consumptive 
should  have  a  light,  airy  room  that  will  not  only 
give  him  fresh  air  but  will  let  in  the  sunlight  to  kill 
the  germs  in  the  room.  He  should  also  have  some 
place  like  an  upper  porch  where  he  can  spend  a 
great  part  of  his  time  outdoors. 

Food,  rest,  and  a  skilled  physician  important. 
To  gain  the  strength  that  he  needs,  a  consump- 
tive must  have  an  abundance  of  nourishing,  well- 
prepared  food.  He  should  have  rest  and  should 


156  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

not  exercise  or  work,  or  he  will  bring  on  fever  in 
the  afternoons.  He  should  also  have  a  skilled 
physician  to  guide  him  in  his  care  of  himself  and 
to  give  him  the  medical  attention  that  he  needs. 
Climate  is  not  very  important  in  the  treatment 
of  consumption,  but  in  general  a  cool,  dry  climate 
is  best.  One  of  the  most  important  points  of  all  is 
to  begin  the  treatment  while  the  disease  is  still  in  its 
early  stages.  Not  only  is  consumption  far  easier  to 
cure  when  it  is  in  its  first  stages  than  later,  but  it 
can  be  cured  in  much  less  time  and  at  much  smaller 
cost. 

Questions :  i.  Explain  the  difference  between  tubercu- 
losis and  consumption.  2.  How  much  does  tuberculosis 
cost  the  people  of  the  United  States  each  year?  3.  How 
does  the  germ  of  tuberculosis  enter  the  body?  4.  Where  do 
tuberculosis  germs  come  from  ?  5.  Mention  some  ways  by 
which  the  germs  are  spread  from  a  consumptive.  6.  Why  is 
the  habit  of  spitting  a  dangerous  one  ?  7 .  How  may  the  germs 
from  a  consumptive  be  destroyed?  8.  What  diseases  be- 
sides tuberculosis  are  caused  by  milk?  9.  How  may  the 
germs  in  milk  be  killed?  10.  Where  should  a  consump- 
tive spend  a  great  part  of  his  time?  n.  Mention  other 
things  that  are  important  in  the  treatment  of  consumption. 
12.  Give  two  reasons  why  the  'treatment  of  consumption 
should  be  commenced  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Hygienic  living  as 
a  preventive  of  tuberculosis.  Pasteurizing  milk.  Disinfection  of 
houses  recently  occupied  by  consumptives.  Obtain  Board  of 
Health  bulletins  on  tuberculosis  and  Knopf's  Tuberculosis  as  a 
Disease  of  the  Masses  and  How  to  Combat  It.  This  book  is  pub- 
lished at  cost  (25  cents)  by  F.  P.  Flori,  New  York. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-ONE 

OTHER  DISEASES   OF  THE  AIR  PASSAGES  AND  LUNGS 

BESIDES  Consumption  there  are 
many  other  diseases  of  the  air 
passages  and  lungs.  The  germs 
of  all  these  diseases  enter  the  body 
through  the  mouth  and  nose,  and 
they  are  all  spread  by  coughing, 
by  spitting  in  public  places,-  by 
the  hands,  by  drinking  cups,  and 
in  the  various  other  ways  by  which  Fia  ^  A  drinking 

-  cup  that  had  been  in 

the  germs  from  a  consumptive  are  use  in  a  school  for  nine 

Scattered  abroad.  days  was  examined  and 

•P.  •     '-rk  •  was  estimated  to  have 

Pneumonia.  Pneumonia  causes  on  each  square  inch  of 
more  deaths  in  the  United  States  its  surface  100,000  bac- 
than  any  other  disease  except  tena" 
tuberculosis.  It  is  a  catching  disease,  and  no  one 
should  be  about  a  pneumonia  patient  except  those 
who  are  taking  care  of  him.  The  sputum  of  a  per- 
son who  has  the  disease  is  filled  with  the  germs  and 
should  be  destroyed. 

Diphtheria.  This  disease  is  caused  by  a  germ 
that  grows  in  the  air  passages,  usually  in  the  throat. 
Generally  the  disease  shows  itself  in  from  one  to 
three  days  after  the  germs  get  into  the  body.  Many 
cases  of  diphtheria  are  so  mild  that  they  are  mis- 
taken for  simple  sore  throat,  but  in  other  cases  it  is 
a  very  severe  disease.  Sometimes  the  germs  remain 
in  the  throat  of  a  diphtheria  patient  for  weeks  or 
even  for  months  after  he  recovers.  It  is  therefore 

J57 


158 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


very  important  that  a  physician  examine  any  one 
who  has  recovered  from  diphtheria  to  see  if  he  is 
free  from  the  germs  before  he  is  let  out  of  quaran- 
tine. Some  well  persons  who  have  been  about 

those  who  have  the  disease 
may  carry  the  germs  in 
their  throats  although  they 
themselves  are  not  sick. 
For  this  reason  those  who 
are  living  in  a  family  where 
there  is  diphtheria  should 
be  quarantined  as  well  as 
the  person  who  is  sick,  and 
when  diphtheria  breaks  out 
in  a  school  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  examine  all  the  chil- 
dren in  the  school  and 
quarantine  some  who  are 
carrying  diphtheria  germs, 
even  when  they  are  not 
sick.  In  the  treatment  of 
diphtheria  nothing  is  so 
important  as  to  give  anti- 
toxin at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  The  disease 
sometimes  called  membranous  croup  is  diphtheria. 
Whooping  cough.  Whooping  cough  causes  the 
death  of  great  numbers  of  babies,  and  children 
should  be  protected  from  it.  Usually  the  disease 
shows  itself  in  from  four  to  fourteen  days  after  the 


FIG.  104.  Sanitary  drinking 
fountains  should  be  substi- 
tuted for  public  drinking  cups. 
In  these  fountains  the  person 
drinks  the  stream  of  water 
without  touching  the  fountain 
with  his  lips. 


OTHER  DISEASES  OF  THE  LUNGS 


159 


germs  get  into  the  body,  but  sometimes  it  does  not 
appear  for  three  weeks  after  the  person  has  been 
exposed  to  the  disease.  It  is  a  very  catching  dis- 
ease, and  at  the  first  symptoms  of  it  children  should 
be  removed  from  school.  As  a  general  rule  a  child 
may  be  allowed  to  return  to  school  in  six  weeks  after 


FIGS.  105  and  106.  In  schools  where  the  sanitary  drinking  fountain 
cannot  be  installed,  a  covered  water  cooler  and  individual  cups 
should  be  substituted  for  the  old-fashioned  open  bucket  and  com- 
mon drinking  cups. 

the  beginning  of  the  whoop,  provided  the  hard  cough- 
ing spells  have  ceased. 

Influenza  (grip).  This  is  a  very  severe  and  a 
very  catching  disease.  The  germs  of  it  are  spread 
in  the  same  ways  that  the  germs  of  consumption, 
diphtheria,  and  pneumonia  are  spread.  Much  can 
be  done  to  check  the  spread  of  influenza  by  keeping 
the  germs  from  spreading  from  those  who  are  sick 
with  it.  How  much  can  be  done  in  this  way  was 


160  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

shown  in  a  school  in  Norwalk,  Connecticut.  This 
school  had  in  it  about  twelve  hundred  pupils,  when 
an  epidemic  of  grip  occurred  in  the  city.  On  the 
second  floor  all  the  children  who  took  the  disease 
were  sent  home  and  the  rooms  were  disinfected 
each  night.  On  this  floor  only  twenty  pupils  were 
attacked.  On  the  first  floor  no  care  was  taken  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  the  germs,  and  two  thirds 
of  the  children  had  the  disease.  Old  people  and 
sick  people  should  be  very  carefully  protected  from 
influenza  germs,  and  no  one  should  expose  himself 
to  them  when  he  can  avoid  doing  so. 

Colds.  Colds  may  be  caused  by  the  pneumonia 
germ,  the  influenza  germ,  or  by  a  number  of  other 
germs.  They  are  very  catching,  and  the  germs'  are 
spread  in  all  the  ways  that  influenza  or  pneumonia 
germs  are  spread.  A  child  who  has  a  bad  cold  should 
not  be  in  school,  and  any  one  with  a  cold  should  do 
all  in  his  power  to  keep  the  germs  from  spreading  to 
others. 

Protecting  ourselves  from  the  germs  of  res- 
piratory diseases.  Do  not  be  with  those  who 
have  diseases  of  the  lungs  and  air  passages  unless 
there  is  some  special  reason  why  you  should  do  so. 
Do  not  handle  objects  that  they  have  handled.  Do 
not  use  drinking  cups  that  they  have  used.  Do 
not  put  pencils  and  other  articles  into  your  mouth. 
Avoid  breathing  in  dust  as  much  as  possible  (page 
53).  Keep  your  hands  away  from  your  face,  and 


OTHER  DISEASES  OF  THE  LUNGS          l6l 

wash  them  well  with  soap  and  water  before  eating. 
These  are  some  of  the  ways  by  which  you  can  keep 
the  germs  'that  cause  diseases  of  the  air  passages 
and  lungs  from  getting  into  your  body. 

Good  health  a  great  protection  against  germ 
diseases.  When  germs  get  into  the  body,  the 
body  tries  to  resist  and  kill  them.  There  are  a 
few  germs  like  the  germs  of  smallpox  and  measles 
that  hardly  any  one  can  resist;  but  if  we  are  in 
health  we  can  often  overcome  the  germs  of  diseases 
like  pneumonia  or  colds.  For  this  reason  one  of 
the  best  ways  of  protecting  ourselves  against  these 
and  many  other  germ  diseases  is  to  give  our  bodies 
good  food,  to  keep  our  teeth  clean  and  sound,  to 
take  plenty  of  sleep  and  exercise,  and  to  make  sure 
that  we  have  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  We  ought 
to  do  everything  in  our  power  to  keep  from  taking 
the  germs  of  consumption,  pneumonia,  influenza, 
and  colds  into  our  air  passages,  but  these  germs  are 
so  widespread  that  sooner  or  later  we  are  bound  to 
get  them  into  our  bodies.  Then  we  will  need  to 
have  our  bodies  so  strong  that  they  can  defy  the 
germs  and  kill  them,  and  the  only  way  to  have  a 
strong  body  is  to  give  it  continually  the  care  that 
it  needs. 

Clean  teeth  a  protection  against  germ  diseases. 
Suppose  there  are  two  boys  in  the  same  school;  that 
one  of  these  boys  has  clean,  sound  teeth,  and  that 
the  other  boy  has  the  other  kind  of  teeth.  Suppose 


1 62  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

that  a  bad  cold,  grip,  pneumonia  or  diphtheria  ap- 
pears in  the  school,  and  that  each  boy  gets  a  few  of 
the  germs  into  his  mouth.  Which  boy  will  probably 
have  the  better  digestion,  the  stronger  body,  and  be 
more  able  to  fight  off  the  germs?  In  which  mouth 
will  the  germs  be  likely  to  grow  and  multiply  until 
the  boy  can  no  longer  resist  them?  Which  boy  is 
more  likely  to  carry  the  germs  for  some  time  in  his 
mouth,  to  have  them  on  his  hands,  and  to  leave 
them  on  anything  he  handles?  These  are  questions 
which  it  will  not  be  hard  for  you  to  decide. 

Questions:  i.  In  what  ways  do  the  germs  of  diseases  cf 
the  air  passages  and  lungs  get  into  the  body?  2.  How  can 
one  prevent  the  scattering  of  erms  from  a  patient  sick  with 
pneumonia?  3.  What  is  the  cause  of  diphtheria?  4.  Why 
should  a  family  in  which  there  is  a  case  of  diphtheria  be 
quarantined?  5.  How  long  should  children  who  have 
whooping  cough  be  kept  out  of  school  and  away  from  well 
children?  6.  How  are  the  germs  of  influenza  spread?  7. 
Does  getting  wet  cause  a  cold?  8.  What  is  the  best  way  to 
avoid  influenza  and  co  ds?  9.  What  is  the  greatest  protec- 
tion against  diseases  of  the  air  passages  and  the  lungs? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  The  necessity  for 
quarantining  all  cases  of  diphtheria  and  for  sending  home  all  chil- 
dren who  have  communicable  diseases.  Discuss  any  habits  the 
children  may  have  that  allow  the  germs  of  respiratory  diseases 
to  spread  from  one  pupil  to  another.  Discourage  the  passing  of 
objects  from  one  pupil  to  another,  and  put  away  common  drinking 
cups,  wash  basins,  and  towels.  The  teacher  should  realize  that  the 
public  school  is  a  great  disseminator  of  germ  diseases,  and  should 
strive  to  make  it  as  safe  as  possible  for  the  children  who  attend  it. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-TWO 

MALARIA,   SMALLPOX,  AND   OTHER  GERM  DISEASES 


FIG.  107.  The  mosquito  that  carries  malaria  (A}  has  spots  on  its 
wings  and  stands  up  on  its  head  when  resting  and  biting.  The  com- 
mon mosquito  takes  the  position  shown  in  B. 

Malaria.  The  germ  of  malaria  grows  in  the 
blood,  and  a  person  who  is  attacked  by  this  disease 
may  be  troubled  with  it  for  months  or  years.  One 
person  cannot  catch  malaria  from  another  person, 
but  if  a  mosquito  bites  any  one  who  has  malaria 
germs  in  his  blood,  the  mosquito  gets  the  disease. 
Then,  if  the  mosquito  bites  another  person,  it  will 
leave  the  germs  in  the  blood  of  the  latter,  and  about 
a  week  later  this  person  will  have  malaria.  It  was 
formerly  thought  that  breathing  air  from  swamps  or 
drinking  impure  water  caused  malaria,  but  we  now 
know  that  these  ideas  are  not  correct  and  that  the 
disease  is  spread  only  by  mosquitoes.  In  the  next 

chapter  we  shall  study  how  to  destroy  mosquitoes. 

163 


1 64  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

Smallpox.  Smallpox  was  formerly  one  of  the 
most  feared  of  all  diseases,  because  nearly  everyone 
who  was  exposed  to  it  took  the  disease,  and  because 
a  great  number  of  those  who  were  attacked  by  it 
died.  A  little  over  a  hundred  years  ago  it  was  found 
that  a  person  could  be  protected  against  smallpox 
by  vaccination.  Now  all  that  we  have  to  do  to  es- 
cape the  disease  is  to  be  vaccinated,  and  in  countries 
where  vaccination  is  practiced  by  all  the  people, 
smallpox  is  almost  an  unknown  disease. 

Scarlet  fever.  Scarlet  fever  is  a  very  catching 
disease.  The  germs  are  in  the  scales  that  come 
from  the  skin  and  also  in  the  discharges  from  the 
nose  and  mouth,  and  they  can  be  scattered  about 
in  many  ways.  Scarlet  fever  is  often  dangerous 
and  should  be  carefully  quarantined.  The  dis- 
ease usually  appears  in  from  two  to  ten  days  after 
the  germs  are  taken  into  the  body,  but  may  not 
show  itself  for  a  much  longer  time.  A  patient  is 
dangerous  as  long  as  the  discharges  from  the  eyes, 
ears,  and  nose  continue.  Usually  cases  of  scarlet 
fever  are  quarantined  for  about  fifty  days. 

Measles.  Measles  is  a  very  catching  disease. 
The  matter  from  the  nose  and  throat  is  especially 
dangerous,  and  the  germs,  like  the  germs  of  scarlet 
fever  and  smallpox,  may  be  carried  on  clothing. 
No  one  with  a  cold  should  be  allowed  to  come  near 
a  person  who  has  measles,  and  the  eyes  should  be 
shaded  and  carefully  guarded  during  this  disease. 


MALARIA,  SMALLPOX  AND  OTHER  DISEASES  165 

A  patient  is  usually  dangerous  to  others  for  about 
three  weeks  after  the  time  of  the  breaking  out  of  the 
rash.  The  germs  die  out  in  a  house  in  about  two 
weeks.  Measles  ought  to  be  carefully  quarantined, 
for  it  is  a  most  dangerous  disease  and  causes  about 
eight  thousand  deaths  a  year  in  the  United  States. 

Mumps.  One  who  has  mumps  is  dangerous  to 
others  for  about  a  week  after  the  swelling  has  gone. 
The  disease  generally  appears  from  thirteen  to 
twenty  days  after  the  person  has  been  exposed  to 
the  germs. 

Boils  and  inflammation.  Boils,  carbuncles, 
pimples,  bone  felons,  blood  poisoning,  and  all  in- 
flammation in  wounds  and  sores  are  caused  by 
germs.  Germs  from  a  boil  should  not  be  allowed 
to  reach  other  persons  or  the  trouble  may  be  spread. 
It  is  a  common  thing  for  a  person  with  a  boil  to 
scratch  the  germs  into  the  skin  and  bring  on  a  whole 
crop  of  boils  in  other  parts  of  his  body.1 

A  cut  or  a  sore  should  be  tied  up  to  keep  germs 
from  getting  into  it,  and  if  particles  of  dirt  have 
gotten  into  a  wound  they  should  be  removed.  Gen- 
erally this  can  best  be  done  by  washing  the  wound 
with  warm  water,  using  when  necessary  a  clean 
cloth  rubbed  on  pure  soap  to  wipe  out  the  dirt.  A 
fresh  wound  is  often  best  treated  by  tying  it  up  "in 

1  A  physician  reports  that  a  young  girl  who  was  suffering  with  a 
boil  visited  four  different  girl  friends  in  four  different  families,  and 
in  each  case  the  girl  visited  was  attacked  by  boils. 


1 66 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


the  blood"  and  not  opening  it  until  it  has  healed. 
Carbolated  vaseline  or  borated  vaseline  is  often 
useful  in  treating  small  wounds  and  sores  that  have 
matter  in  them. 

Tetanus.    The  germ  of  tetanus  or  lockjaw  lives 
in   the   earth,   especially   about   horse   stables.     It 


FIGS.  108  and  109.     A  little  time  spent  in  cleansing  and  caring  for 
a  wound  may  save  trouble  later. 

grows  best  in  small,  deep  wounds  and  in  wounds 
that  get  earth  and  dust  into  them.  Deep  wounds 
made  by  rusty  nails  or  other  unclean  objects  should 
be  cleansed  by  a  physician.  Wounds  made  by  toy 
pistols  and  firecrackers  are  also  likely  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  tetanus  and  should  be  cared  for  by  a  physi- 
cian. An  antitoxin  for  this  disease  has  been  prepared 
which  is  almost  sure  to  prevent  it  if  used  in  time. 
This  is  now  often  given  after  Fourth  of  July  wounds. 


MALARIA,  SMALLPOX  AND  OTHER  DISEASES  167 

Other  germ  diseases.  Among  other  diseases 
that  are  caused  by  germs  may  be  mentioned  chicken 
pox,  German  measles,  acute  (inflammatory)  rheu- 
matism, meningitis,  cholera,  leprosy,  plague,  and 
yellow  fever.  Germs  also  cause  many  diseases  of 
animals.  One  of  these  diseases  is  rabies  or  hydro- 
phobia, which  man  sometimes  gets  from  the  bite  or 
scratch  of  a  dog  or  cat.  Some  persons  think  that 
dogs  take  rabies  because  of  a  lack  of  water  or  be- 
cause of  hot  weather,  but  this  is  not  correct.  They 
may  have  the  disease  at  any  time  of  the  year,  and 
they  get  the  germ  from  the  bite  of  another  animal 
that  has  the  disease.  The  Pasteur  treatment  will 
almost  always  prevent  rabies  if  it  is  begun  in 
tune. 

Questions  :  i.  How  are  the  germs  of  malaria  carried  from 
one  person  to  another?  2.  How  are  scarlet  fever  and  measles 
spread  from  one  person  to  another?  3.  Why  is  it  necessary 
to  quarantine  these  diseases?  4.  What  is  the  cause  of  boils 
and  pimples?  5.  Why  is  one  boil  often  followed  after  a  few 
days  by  others  on  other  parts  of  the  body?  6.  What  is  the 
best  way  of  caring  for  wounds  of  the  skin?  7.  Why  is  a 
small,  deep  wound  dangerous  unless  carefully  cleaned? 

8,  What  is  the  cause  of  rabies? 

I 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  TJie  importance  of 
screening  malarial  patients  to  prevent  infection  of  the  mosquitoes, 
and  of  screening  houses  and  sleeping  under  mosquito  nets  in 
malarial  countries.  The  importance  of  vaccination.  The  fool- 
ishness of  allowing  communicable  diseases  to  run  through  schools, 
because  they  are  regarded  as  not  very  severe.  The  teacher  should 
secure  health  bulletins  and  become  familiar  with  the  symptoms 
of  any  infectious  diseases  that  threaten  the  school. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-THREE 

PREVENTING  THE  SPREAD   OF  DISEASE   GERMS 

SOMETIMES  a  farmer  finds  thistles  springing  up  ih 
his  pasture  year  after  year,  even  when  he  has  care- 
fully cut  down  all  the  thistles  that  are  on  his  own 
land.  Then  the  farmer  knows  that  some  of  his 
neighbors  are  raising  thistles  and  allowing  the  wind 
to  blow  the  seeds  about.  A  thistle  grows  only  from 
a  thistle  seed,  and  as  long  as  they  keep  appearing  in 
the  pasture  the  seeds  must  come  from  somewhere. 

Disease  germs,  like  thistles,  do  not  come  from  no- 
where. Every  case  of  typhoid  fever  is  caused  by 
germs  that  come  from  another  case  of  typhoid  fever. 
Every  case  of  whooping  cough  is  caused  by  germs 
that  come  from  another  case  of  whooping  cough. 
Every  case  of  grip  is  caused  by  germs  that  come 
from  another  case  of  grip.  The  people  who  have 
these  and  other  catching  diseases  scatter  the  germs 
abroad  just  as  a  thistle  scatters  its  seeds.  One  very 
important  way  of  checking  the  spread  of  these  dis- 
eases is  to  destroy  the  germs  that  come  from  sick 
people  and  not  allow  them  to  get  spread  abroad. 

Disinfectants.  A  disinfectant  is  something 
that  kills  germs.  Light  and  drying  are  two  of  na- 
ture's disinfectants  that  are  great  enemies  of  germs. 
Fire  is  one  of  the  best  disinfectants  for  sputum  and 
articles  of  little  value,  and  boiling  water  kills  dis- 
ease germs  at  once.  Germs  may  also  be  killed  by 
bichlorid  of  mercury,  quicklime,  carbolic  acid,  lysol, 
and  other  substances  that  can  be  purchased  at  drug 

168 


PREVENTING   THE  SPREAD   OF  GERMS     169 

stores.  Carbolic  acid  and  lysol  are  good  disinfect- 
ants. For  intestinal  wastes,  a  strong  whitewash  made 
of  quicklime  (slaked  lime  is  useless)  is  cheap,  and  as 
good  as  anything  that  can  be  used.  For  furniture, 
floors,  and  the  hands,  bichlorid  of  mercury  is  often 
used,  but  it  destroys  metals.  One  of  the  best  dis- 
infectants for  the  hands  and  for  objects  that  are 
made  of  metal  is  put  up  in  tablets  that  contain 
biniodid  of  mercury  and  potassium  iodid. 

Mistakes  in  disinfecting.  People  often  make 
a  disinfectant  too  weak  to  injure  the  germs.  For 
example,  a  few  spoonfuls  of  carbolic  acid  are  put  into 
a  bucketful  of  water,  when  a«  whole  pint  of  the  acid 
to  a  bucketful  (ten  quarts)  of  water  is  needed  to 
make  a  disinfectant  strong  enough  to  kill  germs. 
It  is  also  a  mistake  to  use  too  small  an  amount  of 
a  disinfectant,  or  not  to  allow  the  material  to  re- 
main in  it  long  enough  to  do  the  work.  The  rule 
followed  in  hospitals  is  to  use  as  much  disinfectant 
as  there  is  material  to  be  disinfected,  and  matter  like 
intestinal  wastes  should  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the 
disinfectant  for  several  hours. 

The  mistake  of  allowing  germs  to  be  scat- 
tered about  a  sickroom.  One  trouble  in  the  sick- 
room is  that  the  person  nursing  a  case  of  some 
disease  like  typhoid  fever  works  about  the  bed  of 
the  patient  and  then  touches  his  own  clothing  or  other 
articles  in  the  room  before  disinfecting  his  hands. 
If  this  is  done,  the  germs  soon  get  on  everything 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


in  the  room,  and  any  one  who  even  touches  a  door- 
knob, a  chair,  or  a  curtain  in  such  a  room  is  likely  to 
get  the  germs  on  his  hands.  A  basin  of  disinfectant 
should  be  kept  close  at  hand,  and  the  hands  washed 
in  it  after  doing  any  work  that  is 
likely  to  leave  germs  on  them. 
Large  aprons  that  will  protect  the 
clothing  should  be  worn  in  the 
sickroom,  and  they  should  be 
changed  frequently.  Remember 
that  germs  are  so  small  that  fifty 
millions  of  them  have  plenty  of 
room  to  swim  in  a  drop  of  water, 
and  that  it  requires  great  care  to 
keep  them  from  becoming  scattered 
about. 

Keeping  our  houses  free  from 
flies.  Flies  are  great  carriers  of 
disease  germs,  for  they  swarm  about 
all  manner  of  uncleanness,  and  then 
come  into  the  house  and  walk  over 
food  and  dishes,  or  on  our  very  hands  and  faces. 
Houses  should  be  screened,  and  everything  possible 
should  be  done  to  keep  flies  out  of  them,  but  the 
best  way  to  fight  flies  is  to  keep  them  from  breed- 
ing about  our  homes. 

The  egg  of  the  fly  is  laid  in  manure  and  sometimes 
in  garbage.  The  egg  hatches  into  a  little  white 
maggot,  and  in  about  ten  days  the  maggot  changes 


FIG.  no.  The  leg 
and  foot  of  a  fly  as 
seen  under  a  micro- 
scope. On  their  legs 
and  feet  flies  often 
carry  thousands  of 
germs. 


PREVENTING   THE  SPREAD   OF  GERMS     I /I 

into  a  fly.  If  all  manure  and  garbage  is  hauled  away 
and  disposed  of  every  week,  or  kept  covered  so  that 
flies  cannot  get  to  it  to  lay  their  eggs,  then  the  flies 
will  have  no  place  to  hatch.  If  the  people  of  a 
town  should  buy  great  numbers  of  incubators  and 
hatch  chickens  in  every  yard,  they  would  expect  the 
chickens  to  become  very  abundant  about  them. 


FIG.  in.     The  life  history  of  the  fly.     A  shows  the  eggs  ;  B,  the 
larva  or  maggot;  C,  the  pupa,  and  D  the  adult  fly. 

So  if  they  keep  incubators  in  the.  form  of  manure 
heaps  for  hatching  flies,  they  must  expect  that  the 
town  will  swarm  with  flies.  Flies  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  get  into  the  sickroom,  nor  should  they  be 
allowed  to  touch  the  germ-filled  sputum  and  wastes 
that  come  from  the  sick. 

Freeing  our  homes  from  mosquitoes.  The  egg 
of  a  mosquito  is  laid  on  water,  and  hatches  into  a 
wriggler.  In  hot  weather  the  wriggler  turns  into  a 
mosquito  in  about  ten  days.  The  best  way  to  fight 
mosquitoes  is  to  drain  the  pools  of  water,  cover  or 


1/2  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

remove  the  rain  barrels,  screen  or  cover  the  cisterns, 
and  carry  away  the  old  tin  cans  and  buckets  in  which 
the  mosquitoes  hatch.  The  wrigglers  and  eggs  in  a 
pool  or  barrel  can  easily  be  killed  by  pouring  kero- 
sene on  the  water,  and  a  water  tank  or  barrel  can  be 
kept  free  from  mosquitoes  by  putting  a  few  minnows 
or  other  small  fish  into  it.  Some  mosquitoes  fly 
considerable  distances,  but  the  kinds  that  carry 
malaria  and  yellow  fever  spend  their  lives  near  the 
place  where  they  are  hatched,  that  is,  within  a  few 
hundred  yards  of  it.  A  town  or  a  country  house  can 
easily  free  itself  from  disease-carrying  mosquitoes 
by  looking  after  the  breeding  places  that  are  near  it. 

Impure  water  a  carrier  of  disease  germs.  The 
germs  that  are  most  commonly  taken  into  the 
body  in  water  are  the  germs  of  typhoid  fever  and 
other  diseases  of  the  intestine.  In  diseases  like 
pneumonia,  diphtheria,  grip,  and  consumption,  how- 
ever, the  germs  are  swallowed,  and  are  in  the  wastes 
from  the  intestine,  and  may  be  spread  by  water. 
Figure  96  shows  how  important  it  is  for  a  city  to 
provide  a  good  water  supply  for  its  inhabitants,  and 
any  one  who  uses  water  from  a  private  well  or  spring 
cannot  take  too  much  care  in  guarding  his  drinking 
water  from  disease  germs. 

Keeping  germs  out  of  a  well  or  spring.  In  a 
mountainous  country  where  the  earth  contains 
cracked  and  sloping  layers  of  rock,  germs  can  make 
their  way  through  cracks  in  the  rocks  for  long  dis- 


PREVENTING   THE  SPREAD   OF  GERMS     1/3 

tances  into  wells  and  springs.  Germs  cannot  pass 
through  more  than  a  few  feet  of  soil,  however,  and 
in  a  level  country  where  the  wells  are  dug  entirely 
through  soil,  germs  can  get  into  a  well  only  at  the 
mouth.  They  do  this  by  getting  on  well-ropes  and 
pumps  from  the  fingers  of  germ  carriers  and  the  fin- 


FIG.  112.  A  shows  a  well  so  arranged  that  surface  water  and  germs 
are  kept  out  of  it.  B  shows  how  surface  water  and  germs  get  into  a 
well. 

gers  of  those  who  have  been  waiting  on  the  sick;  from 
the  feet  of  those  who  stand  on  the  platform;  from 
surface  water  that  flows  over  the  soil  and  runs  down 
behind  the  wall  into  the  well;  or  from  clothes  that 
are  washed  near  the  well.  Arrange  the  covering  of 
the  well  so  that  nothing  can  get  into  it  at  the  mouth, 
for  usually  disease  germs  get  into  the  well  by  this 
way  and  not  from  deep  in  the  ground.  A  spring  is 
never  safe  as  long  as  surface  water  can  flow  into  it, 


1/4  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

and  in  rocky  regions  it  is  difficult  to  tell  where  the 
water  of  a  spring  comes  from  or  when  it  is  safe. 

Disposing  of  the  body  wastes.  Most  disease 
germs  that  attack  us  grow  either  in  the  air  passages 
and  lungs,  or  in  the  mouth,  throat,  and  intestine. 
These  germs  leave  the  body  in  the  sputum  and  in 
the  body  wastes.  It  is  unsafe  therefore  for  people 
to  spit  in  public  places,  and  it  is  even  more  unsafe 
for  the  body  wastes  to  be  scattered  about.  These 
wastes  should  never  be  allowed  to  pollute  the  soil 
about  houses;  they  should  not  be  left  where  rains 
can  wash  them  over  yards  and  into  wells  and  springs, 
and  they  should  not  be  left  where  flies  can  carry 
them  about.  Perhaps  no  other  one  thing  is  so  im- 
portant to  the  health  of  the  world  as  a  safe  method 
of  disposing  of  human  wastes. 

Questions*  i.  Where  do  disease  germs  come  from?  2.  What 
is  a  disinfectant?  3.  Name  some  disinfectants.  4.  What 
mistakes  are  often  made  in  disinfecting?  5.  How  can  we 
keep  germs  from  getting  on  objects  in  a  sickroom?  6.  Ex- 
plain where  flies  breed  and  how  one  can  get  rid  of  them. 
7.  What  diseases  are  spread  by  water?  8.  Explain  how 
germs  get  into  a  well  or  spring  and  how  to  keep  them  out  of 
it.  9.  Where  do  germs  grow  in  the  body  and  how  do  they 
leave  the  body? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Show  the  advan- 
tages of  isolation,  quarantine,  and  disinfection  in  dealing  with  in- 
fectious diseases.  Show  how  many  diseases  have  been  eradicated 
by  these  measures  and  how  the  only  hope  of  limiting  the  spread 
of  certain  diseases  now  prevalent  lies  along  these  lines.  Make  it 


PREVENTING   THE  SPREAD   OF  GERMS     175 

plain  that  disease  germs  do  not  get  into  a  cistern  from  a  hot,  dry 
roof,  but  from  the  people  who  come  about  the  cistern. 

• 

In  nearly  all  village  and  rural  communities  the  methods  of  dis- 
posing of  excreta  offer  endless  opportunities  for  infection  with 
germs  of  all  kinds  and  with  intestinal  worms.  Show  how  the  pre- 
sence of  germ-carriers  renders  imperative  some  sanitary  method  of 
disposing  of  human  excreta. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-FOUR 

KEEPING  UP  THE  RESISTANCE  OF  THE  BODY  TO 
DISEASE   GERMS 


FIG.  113.  People  who  would  not  think  of  killing  their  friends  with 
a  gun  often  kill  them  by  carelessly  scattering  germs  among  them.  In 
1885  one  man  killed  three  thousand  people  by  carrying  smallpox 
germs  from  Chicago  to  Montreal. 

IN  a  telephone  exchange  in  Massachusetts  employ- 
ing over  sixty  girls,  a  record  of  the  absences  on  ac- 
count of  sickness  was  kept  for  a  number  of  years.  The 
amount  of  sickness  was  greatest  in  the  winter,  when 
many  of  the  girls  suffered  from  colds  and  grip,  and 
during  the  hot  weather  of  July  and  August,  when 
there  was  always  considerable  sickness  from  dis- 
eases of  the  digestive  organs.  Finally,  a  ventilator 
was  put  into  the  building.  The  first  summer  this  was 
in  use,  the  amount  of  sickness  was  not  much  affected, 
but  when  the  second  spell  of  hot  summer  weather 
came  again  the  girls  were  not  sick  as  they  had  been 
in  other  years.  Breathing  the  pure  air  through  a 
whole  winter  had  so  built  up  their  strength  and  im- 
proved their  health  that  they  could  resist  the  germs 
that  caused  the  summer  diseases.  In  the  winter 

months  themselves,  the 'girls  to  a  great  extent  es- 

176 


KEEPING    UP  RESISTANCE    TO   GERMS      I// 

caped  the  colds  from  which  they  had  suffered,  and 
the  amount  of  sickness  for  the  winter  was  less  than 
half  what  it  had  been  before  the  ventilator  was  put 
into  the  building. 

Building  up  the  resistance  of  the  body  to 
disease  germs.  From  the  experience  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts telephone  company,  we  can  learn  two  les- 
sons. The  first  is  that  by  living  in  a  healthful  way 
we  can  build  up  our  bodies  so  that  they  will  have  a 
greater  resistance  to  germ  diseases.  The  other  is 
that  building  up  the  body  so  that  it  can  resist  germs 
is  not  the  work  of  a  day  or  a  week,  but  of  months. 
We  may  take  pneumonia  or  grip  this  year  because 
last  year  we  did  not  care  for  ourselves  and  so  weak- 
ened our  bodies.  Hygienic  habits  of  living  are  what 
we  need  at  all  times  to  help  us  in  our  fight  with  the 
germs. 

The  house  and  the  health.  Far  more  than 
most  persons  know,  the  houses  in  which  we  live 
affect  the  health.  If  a  house  is  small,  or  too  many 
people  are  crowded  into  it,  it  is  impossible  to  keep 
the  air  pure.  If  there  is  only  one  place  in  the  house 
where  the  teeth  can  be  cleaned,  probably  the  people 
who  live  in  the  house  will  often  hurry  off  to  work  in 
the  morning  with  uncleaned  teeth.  If  there  is  no 
place  in  the  bathroom  but  the  wash  basin  in  which 
to  clean  the  teeth,  no  one  will  be  able  to  wash  his  face 
without  covering  it  with  all  the  different  kinds  of 
germs  that  have  been  brought  into  the  house. 

12  ,     ' 


178  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

If  the  floors  are  cold,  the  mother  and  the  children 
who  stay  in  the  house  all  day  will  suffer  and  have 
their  health  injured.  If  the  rooms  are  dark  and 
damp,  any  germs  that  get  into  them  will  remain 
alive  for  weeks  after  they  would  have  been  dead  in 
a  dry,  sunny  room.  The  thing  to  do,  therefore,  if 
you  are  living  in  an  unhealthful  house,  is  to  get  out 
of  it  if  you  can,  and  if  you  must  remain  in  it,  arrange 
it  so  that  it  will  be  as  easy  as  possible  to  live  a  health- 
ful life.  Avoid  above  everything  being  crowded  to- 
gether with  other  people,  for  the  closer  people  live 
together,  the  more  they  trade  germs  with  each 
other,  and  the  harder  it  is  to  keep  conditions  about 
them  healthful. 

The  community  and  the  health  of  the  citizen. 
If  a  man  has  a  geranium,  he  has  a  right,  if  he  wishes 
to  do  so,  to  put  it  in  a  cold,  dark  cellar  and  let  it 
wither;'  but  no  man  has  a  right  to  keep  people  in 
damp,  dark,  crowded  houses  in  which  women  and 
children  fade  away  and  die.  If  a  man  has  a  barrel  of 
apples,  he  has  a  right  to  put  a  rotten  apple  in  the 
barrel;  but  no  man  has  a  right  to  go  out  and  scatter 
abroad  germs  that  may  cause  disease  and  death  in 
other  people.  Therefore  we  have  public  health  offi- 
cers to  guard  the  health  of  the  whole  people.  It  is 
right  that  we  should  have  officers  of  this  kind.  It  is 
right  that  they  should  see  that  people  are  not  made 
to  live  in  unhealthful  houses  or  to  work  in  unhygienic 
factories.  It  is  right  that  health  officers  should  insist 


KEEPING   UP  RESISTANCE   TO  GERMS      179 

upon  a  town's  having  a  pure  water  supply  and  a  clean 
milk  supply;  that  they  should  quarantine  those  who 
have  diseases  that  are  dangerous  to  others;  and 
that  they  should  require  everyone  to  live  so  that  he 
will  not  injure  the  health  of  others.  It  is  the  duty 
of  every  good  citizen  to  assist  the  health  officers  in 
their  work,  for  just  as  a  house  should  be  arranged 
so  that  it  will  be  easy  for  those  in  it  to  lead  a  health- 
ful life,  so  a  community  should  be  kept  in  such  a 
condition  that  it  will  be  as  easy  as  possible  for  every- 
one in  it  to  escape  disease. 

Questions,  i.  What  effect  had  ventilating  the  room  in 
which  they  worked,  on  the  girls  of  the  Massachusetts  tele- 
phone exchange?  2.  What  two  lessons  in  hygiene  can  we 
learn  from  this?  3.  Mention  some  hygienic  faults  some- 
times found  in  houses.  4.  Study  the  house  in  which  you  live 
and  decide  how  it  could  be  made  a  more  healthful  dwell- 
ing. 5.  Why  should  we  have  public  health  officers? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Lay  great  stress 
upon  the  importance  of  a  hygienic  environment.  Often  the  badly 
heated,  poorly  ventilated  schoolroom  will  offer  a  good  starting 
point  for  practical  suggestions.  A  schoolhouse  that  has  a  cold 
floor  should  have  special  attention. 


TO  THE  TEACHER 

THE  teacher  who  uses  this  text  will  find  Allen's 
Civics  and  Health  (Ginn  &  Company,  Boston),  Shaw's 
School  Hygiene  (The  Macmillan  Company,  New 
York),  McVail's  The  Prevention  of  Infectious  Diseases 
(The  Macmillan  Company),  Lloyd  and  Bigelow's 
The  Teaching  of  Biology  (Longmans,  Green  &  Com- 
pany, New  York),  and  Hutchinson's  Preventable 
Diseases  (Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Company,  Boston), 
most  useful  in  giving  a  background  for  the  teach- 
ing of  the  subject.  McKenzie's  Exercise  in  Edu- 
cation and  Medicine  (W.  B.  Saunders  Company, 
Philadelphia),  Harrington's  Practical  Hygiene  (Lea 
and  Febiger,  Philadelphia),  and  Jordan's  Principles 
of  Bacteriology  (W.  B.  Saunders  Company),  are  books 
of  a  more  advanced  nature,  but  they  can  be  profit- 
ably perused  by  even  the  non-technical  reader. 
Ritchie's  Primer  of  Sanitation  and  Human  Physi- 
ology',  the  second  and  third  books  of  the  series  which 
includes  this  text,  will  furnish  more  detailed  infor- 
mation in  regard  to  many  of  the  topics  discussed, 
and  the  Gulick  Hygiene  Series  (Ginn  &  Company), 
will  be  of  service  to  the  teacher.  These  or  other 
similar  books  should  be  at  the  command  of  the 
teacher,  for  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  the  truth 
of  Spencer's  dictum  that  hygiene  is  the  most  im- 
portant subject  in  the  schools  and  that  it  should 
yield  to  no  subject  in  the  care  with  which  it  is  taught 
or  in  the  time  devoted  to  it. 


180 


INDEX 


ACCIDENTS,  what  to  do  in  case  of, 
'127-130  ^ 

Adenoids,  60-62;  effects  of,  61; 
frequency  of,  60;  importance  of 
removal  of,  61 

Air,  necessity  for,  46 

Air  passages,  53;  effects  of  dust  on, 
54;  of  tobacco  smoke  on,  56 

Alcohol,  an  ally  of  tuberculosis, 
105;  not  a  brain  stimulant,  103; 
and  length  of  life,  106;  attitude 
of  employers  toward,  107;  atti- 
tude of  medical  men  toward, 
108;  effects  on  body,  103-109; 
on  digestive  organs,  36;  on  heart, 
66;  on  lungs,  57;  on  resistance  to 
germ  diseases,  105 

Antidotes,  for  poisons,  129,  130 

Antitoxin,  in  diphtheria,  158 

Arsenic,  antidote  for  poisoning  by, 
129 

BACTERIA,  cause  of  spoiling  of  food, 

22;  how  they  enter  food,  23,  24; 

keeping  out  of  food,   23;  killed 

by  heat,  24;  by  gastric  juice,  28 
Bathing,  75 
Baths,  cold,  76 
Bichlorid  of  mercury,  antidote  for, 

129 

Bile,  29 
Bleeding,  how  to  stop  from  cuts, 

66;  from  the  nose,  67 
Blood,  64,  65 
Blood  vessels,  64 
Body,  carriage  of,  82-84;  organs  of, 

5;  parts  of,  5 
Boils,  due  to  germs,  165 
Bones,  broken,  care  of,  127 
Brain,  effect  of  alcohol  on,  103-105; 

work  of,  92 
Breathing  exercises,  directions  for, 

138-140;  value  of,  57 
Breathing     through    mouth,     evil 

effects  of,  59 


Breeding  places  of  flies,  170-171; 

of  mosquitoes,  171 
Building  foods,  10 
Burns,  care  of,  127 
Buying  foods,  15-18 

CANDY,  harm  done  by,  35 ' 
Carbolic  acid,  antidote  for,  129 
Carbon  dioxid,  injurious  to  body, 

47 

Care  of  foods,  22-25 
Chewing  food,  importance  of,  33 
Cholera    infantum,    how    caused, 

148 
Clothing,     77-79;    changing    with 

weather  changes,   78;  effects  of 

wet,  78;  in  cold  weather,  77 
Coarse  foods,  value  of,  35 
Coffee,  use  of,  33 
Cold  drinks,  harm  done  by,  33 
Colds,  causes  of,  160;  restriction  of, 

1 60 
Consumption,  in  dusty  trades,  54. 

See  Tuberculosis 
Cooking,  19-21 
Corrosive  sublimate,  antidote  for, 

129 

Croup,  membranous,  158 
Cuts,  how  to  bandage,  66 

DEAFNESS,  causes  of,  123 
Diarrhrea,  how  caused,  148;    how 

spread,  148 
Digestion,  organs  of,   26;    process 

of,    27-30;     in    mouth,    27;     in 

small  intestine,  29;  in  stomach, 

28 
Digestive  organs,  keeping  in  health, 

32-37  ^ 

Diphtheria,  157;  antitoxin  in,  158; 
membranous  croup  a  form  of, 
158;  quarantine  in,  158 

Disease  germs,  141-143;  cause  of 
catching  diseases,  141;  of  run- 
ning ears,  123;  keeping  out  of 


181 


182 


INDEX 


food,  24;  list  of  diseases  caused 

by,  142;  size  of,  142 
Diseases  of  air  passages  and  lungs, 

157-160;    of    alimentary    canal, 

144-149 
Disinfectants,  168;  mistaken  ideas 

about,  169 
Drowning,  what  to  do  in  apparent, 

128 
Dust,    dangers    of    breathing,    53; 

keeping  down,  54 

EAR  and  its  care,  121-126;  danger 
from  running,  1 23 ;  foreign  bodies 
in,  125;  function  of  parts,  122; 
structure  of,  122;  treatment. of 
running,  124 

Eating,  irregular  habits  of,  34 

Enamel  of  teeth,  how  injured,  42 

Esophagus,  27 

Exercise,  86-89;  an  aid  to  diges- 
tion, 87;  danger  of  over-exercis- 
ing, 88;  in  the  schoolroom,  88; 
proper  position  for,  131;  rules 
in  regard  to,  87;  violent,  injuri- 
ous, 65,  88 

Exercises,  breathing,  138;  for  arms, 
132-134;  for  legs,  134-137;  for 
trunk  muscles,  137-138;  for  use 
in  schools,  131-140 

Eyes,  avoiding  diseases  of,  118- 
119;  care  of  the,  113-120;  how 
moved,  114;  how  protected,  114; 
injury  to,  from  poor  light,  117; 
resting,  118;  troubles  of,  in  chil- 
dren, 116;  danger  of  neglect,  116, 
117 

FAINTING,  treatment  of,  128 

Farsightedness,  115 

Fats,  use  in  cooking,  20 

Flies,  as  germ  carriers,  170;  of  in- 
testinal diseases,  148;  of  tu- 
berculosis germs,  152-153;  of 
typhoid  germs,  145 


Flux,  how  caused  and  spread,  148 

Food  preservatives,  caution  against, 
24 

Foods,  as  building  material,  9; 
buying,  15-18;  care  of,  22-25; 
cooking,  19-21;  as  source  of 
heat,  ii ;  in  treatment  of  tuber- 
culosis, 155;  unsafe  when 
handled,  145;  uses  in  the  body, 
9-13;  use  of  fatty,  n 

Fresh  air  treatment  of  consump- 
tion, 154 

GASTRIC  juice,  28 

Germ,  tuberculosis,  in  discharges 
of  consumptive,  152,  154;  how 
destroyed,  153;  in  milk,  154; 
how  spread,  151,  152;  typhoid, 
how  to  destroy,  145;  how  to 
protect  ourselves  from,  147; 
how  spread,  144 

Germs,  diseases  caused  by,  141, 
142.  167;  cause  of  running  ears, 
123;  of  intestinal  diseases,  148; 
keeping  out  of  foods,  24;  of  respi- 
ratory diseases,  protecting  from, 
1 60;  preventing  spread  of,  168- 
175;  of  malaria,  carried  by  mos- 
quitoes, 163 

Grip,  159-160;  how  to  prevent 
spread  of,  160 

HABITS,  and  health,  99;  import- 
ance of,  98-102;  lasting,  formed 
in  youth,  101;  seven  hygienic, 
99;  mental,  100 

Hair,  care  of  the,  73;  growth  of,  73 

Health,  importance  of,  2;  great 
laws  of,  7;  good,  a  protection 
against  germ  diseases,  161 

Hearing,  testing  the,  126 

Heart,  63;  work  of  the,  64;  effect 
of  alcohol  on,  66;  of  tobacco  on, 
no 


INDEX 


183 


Heating  foods,  n 

Houses,  effect  on  the  health,  177- 

178 
Hygiene,  denned,  3 

ILLNESS,    ascertaining    amount   of 

preventable,  3 
Indigestion,  causes  of,  32-37 
Inflammation,  due  to  germs,  165 
Influenza  (grip),  159 
Intestine,     absorption     from     the 

small,   29,   30;  digestion  in  the 

small,  29;  function  of  the  large, 

30 

JIMSON  weed,  antidote  for  poison- 
ing by,  130 

KIDNEYS,  69-70;  function  of,  69; 
keeping  in  health,  70 

LAUDANUM,  antidote  for  poisoning 

by,  130 

Light,  for  reading,  117,  118 
Liquid  at  meals,  33 
Lockjaw,  antitoxin  for,   167;  how 

caused,  166 

Lunches,  indigestible,  35 
Lungs,  care  of,  52-58;  diseases  of, 

150-162;   effects   of   alcohol  on, 

57;   of   tobacco   smoke   on,    56; 

functions  of,  53;  harmfulness  of 

crowding,  55 

MALARIA,  how  caused,  163;  how 
spread,  163,  172 

Measles,  164;  quarantine  in,  165 

Meningitis,  cause  of,  123 

Mercuric  chlorid,  antidote  for,  129 

Milk,  care  of,  23,  24;  carries  germs 
of  intestinal  diseases,  148;  of  tu- 
berculosis, 152;  of  typhoid,  145 

Mosquito,  carrier  of  malaria,  163; 
how  to  get  rid  of,  171 


Mumps,  care  of,  165 
Muscles,  that  hold  body  erect,  82; 
work  of,  83 

NAILS,  care  of  the,  74 

Nearsightedness,  115 

Nerves,  work  of,  90 

Nervous    system,    90-93;    care    of 

the,  94-97 
Nightshade,  antidote  for  poisoning 

by,  130 

OPIUM,  antidote  for  poisoning  by,  130 
Organs  of  body,  the  principal,  6 
Outdoor  sleeping,  50 
Overeating,  consequences  of,  34 
Over-exercising,  dangers  of,  65,  88 
Oxygen,  need  of  body  for,  46 

PAIN,  bad  effects  of  suffering,  96 
Pasteur  treatment  for  rabies,  167 
Pink  eye,  118 
Pneumonia,  157 
Poison  ivy,  antidote  for,  1 29 
Poisons,  antidotes  for  common,  129 
Preventing  spread  of  disease  germs, 
168-175 

QUARANTINE,  necessary  in  diph- 
theria, 158;  in  measles,  165 

RABIES,  cause  of,  167;  treatment 
of,  167 

Resistance  of  body  to  disease 
germs,  176-179;  increasing,  177 

Respiration,  artificial,  128 

Rest,  necessity  for,  94;  in  tuber- 
culosis, 155 

SALIVARY  glands,  work  of,  27,  28 

Scarlet  fever,  164 

Selecting    foods,    15-18;    mistakes 

in,  15,  18 

Sitting  positions,  good  and  bad,  85 
Skeleton,  function  of  the,  81 


1 84 


INDEX 


Skin,  71-76;  as  a  regulator  of  body 
heat,  72;  structure  of  the,  71 

Sleep,  necessity  for,  95 

Sleeping,  outdoor,  50 

Smallpox,  164;  vaccination  against, 
164 

Sound,  how  heard,  122;  how  pro- 
duced, 122 

Spinal  column,  function  of,  82 

Spinal  cord,  90 

Spitting,  dangers  of,  152,  153 

Springs,  how  polluted,  172-173; 
keeping  germs  out  of,  172 

Sputum,  dangerous  in  pneumonia, 
157;  in  tuberculosis  152 

Starchy  foods,  n 

Stomach,  digestion  in,  28 

Sugar  as  food,  n 

TEETH,  care  of  the,  38-45;  care  of 
the  first  set,  43;  causes  of  de- 
cay in,  41;  decayed,  cause  of 
germ  diseases,  39,  40;  of  ill 
health,  39;  spread  of  decay  in, 
41 ;  straightening  irregular,  44 

Tetanus,  166 

Tobacco,  effect  on  the  body,  110- 
112;  on  digestive  organs,  no; 
on  the  heart,  no;  on  the  nerv- 
ous system,  in;  on  scholarship, 
in;  a  nuisance,  in 

Tobacco  smoke,  effects  on  the 
lungs,  56 

Tonsils,  enlarged,  effects  of,  60-62; 
frequency  of,  61;  importance  of 
treating,  61 

Tuberculosis,  150-156;  cause  of, 
151;  a  curable  disease,  155-156; 


expense  of,  151;  germ  of,  151; 
greatest  cause  of  poverty,  151; 
importance  of  early  treatment 
of,  154;  number  of  deaths  caused 
by,  150;  spread  by  consump- 
tives, 150;  by  milk,  152;  germ, 
destruction  of,  153;  spread  in 
milk,  152;  by  spitting,  153;  in 
other  ways,  152 

Typhoid  fever,  144-149;  caused  by 
germs  from  other  cases,  145; 
number  of  cases  yearly  in  United 
States,  144;  a  preventable  dis- 
ease, 144 

Typhoid  germ,  carriers  of,  146; 
destruction  of,  145;  flies,  as  car- 
riers of,  145;  life  of,  outside  the 
body,  144;  protecting  ourselves 
from,  147;  scattering  of,  144; 
how  to  prevent,  145 

VENTILATION,  methods  of,  48,  51; 

necessity    for,    47;    in    sleeping 

rooms,  49 
Ventilators,  as  reducers  of  disease, 

176 
Vision,  tests  of,  120 

WASTES  from  body,  how  to  dispose 

of  safely,  174 
Water,  impure,  a  germ  carrier,    72; 

keeping  pure,  172 
Well,  how  to  keep  germs  out  of, 

172;  how  polluted,  173-174 
Whooping  cough,  158-159 

YELLOW  fever,  spread  by  mos- 
quitoes, 172 


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